发布时间：2023-02-27 11:15:14
序言：写作是分享个人见解和探索未知领域的桥梁，我们为您精选了8篇的营销制度样本，期待这些样本能够为您提供丰富的参考和启发，请尽情阅读。
药品是人们用以防病治病、康复保健的特殊商品，它既是 商品又不同于一般商品。目前，人们将从事医药销售人员称之 为医药代表。在西方国家，医药代表这一职业至少已有上百年 历史，国内的医药代表最初也是来自改革开放后进人中国市场 的外国医药企业及其合资企业，由于外资、合资企业中的医药 代表非常有效地促进了企业产品的推广和销售业绩的增长，随 后，国内医药企业开始纷纷效仿。我国各地也陆续出现了这一 新职业―――医药代表，而与之相对应的管理规范却严重缺乏和 滞后.
以英国为代表的西方发达国家，已对从事药品销售的人员 实施了认证管理，有着较为严格的准入门槛.
我国外商投资企业协会药品研制和开发行业委员会（简称 RDPAC）、38家跨国制药会员公司在全体会员公司中全面推广 “RDPAC医药代表内部认证项目”，并于2006年制定新的“药 品推广行为准则”，旨在建立行业自律和防控医药商业贿赂的 长效机制。2003年，RDPAC开始对英国、日本和香港的相关认 证项目进行研究。在借鉴这些国家和地区现有经验的基础上， 2004年RDPAC医药代表内部认证项目正式立项，确定了“医 药代表内部认证项目”的初步框架。由于发达国家和我国在医 疗卫生保障体系以及公共事务管理方面有较大差别，因此其管 理模式只起到借鉴和引导的作用。而我国外资企业建立的“医 药代表内部认证项目”牵涉的企业同我国17 000家医疗企业相 比，所占比重非常小。加之企业内部监督不具有强制力，在现有 国情下很难发挥较大作用。因此，应建立以政府主导的行业自 律的医药注册认证模式.
目前，我国医药营销行业从业人员良莠不齐、文化程度偏 低、法律观念淡漠、职业道德观念不强。针对医药营销行业存在 的问题，国家食品药品监督管理局（简称食药监局）应建立市场 准入制度，从认证入手，加强医药营销行业管理，提高我国医药 营销行业的业务水平和职业道德修养，规范医药营销行业行为，维护消费者权益，使我国医药营销行业逐步走上规范有序、 公开统一的健康发展轨道，并建立符合我国国情的医药营销人 员执业资格考试制度和医药营销人员诚信保障体系等.
1建立医药营销人员执业资格考试制度 应通过执业资格考试制度这一准入门槛，提高医药营销行 业从业人员素质.
1.1考试组织和内容 医药营销人员资格考试实行全国统一大纲、统一命题、统 一组织的考试制度。原则上每年举办1次。内容包括：中国医药 卫生概述、医疗机构组成和现状、制药工业概述、基础医学、临 床医学药理学、药品推广行为准则和相关法律、法规[1]。相关部、 局负责编制医药营销人员执业资格考试大纲并组织命题等工 作，组织执业资格的考前培训。同时负责审定医药营销人员执 业资格考试科目、考试大纲和考试试题，组织实施考务工作，并 对医药营销人员执业资格考试进行检查、监督、指导和确定合 格标准。执业资格考试合格的，由省、自治区、直辖市人事部门 颁发人事部统一印制，人事部、食药监局用印《中华人民共和国 医药营销执业资格证书》，该证书全国范围内有效.
1.2执业资格考试报名条件 相关部门可以借鉴执业药师考试设定报名条件，如相关学 科、学历、从事相关专业年限等，对从业人员进行条件和准入的 规范.
1.3医药营销行业执业人员注册制度 国家对医药营销人员实行准入制度，凡取得《中华人民共 和国医药营销执业资格证书》的人员必须经过注册才能从事医 药营销活动。对执业资格注册规定年限，在注册有效届满需要 继续从事医药营销活动的，可按规定的程序换发新证书。对违 反相关规定的采取收回、注销等手段规范医药营销人员执业行 为.
2建立医药营销人员诚信档案体系 建立失信惩戒机制，提高医药营销人员失信成本，是医药 营销人员诚信体系的重要一环。诚信档案，就是把医药营销人 员个人在履行职责和社会生活等方面的个人诚信信息汇集起 来，进行整理存储，从而形成个人的诚信资料。医药营销人员的 个人诚信信息将与履行诚信信息一起纳入档案记录和考评范 围。诚信档案主要由医药营销人员个人基本信息、履行职责诚 信信息和社会诚信信息3部分构成，总的思路是以履职诚信为 主、社会诚信为辅。建立医药营销人员诚信档案应由政府的专 门部门牵头，组织有关部门收集、整理其诚信信息，全面、准确、 及时记录医药营销人员的行为活动。医药营销人员诚信档案对 加强医药营销人员诚信建设有重要作用。在美国，某人一旦有 严重的诚信缺失行为，就被记录在案，他从事任何活动都会受 到影响，可谓终生损失巨大[2]。西方发达国家的实践证明，建立 个人诚信档案是一项约束个人行为及个人进行自我约束的有 效制度。我国国内一些地方政府也先后采取不同的措施和手段 在建设医药营销人员诚信档案方面进行探索、实践.
2.1医药营销人员诚信档案的构成 医药营销人员诚信档案是医药营销行业信用的重要组成 部分。主要内容包括：执业人员基本情况、良好行为与不良行为 记录、业绩汇总、继续教育情况、能力表现、投诉情况等.
2.2医药营销人员诚信档案的管理 随着网络的发展，可将医药营销人员诚信档案与有关部门 的信息系统互联互通，从同业征信向联合征信过渡，实现信息 共享，以更加全面地反映医药营销人员的诚信状况.
（1）管理原则。医药营销人员诚信档案按照“统一规划、分 级建设、分步实施、信息共享”的原则进行，逐步实现医药营销 行业诚信档案系统覆盖全行业的目标。各级医药营销行业主管 部门负责组织所辖区内执业人员诚信档案系统的建设和管理 工作.
（2）组织实施。食药监局组织建立一级执业人员诚信档案 系统。各省食药监局负责一级执业人员诚信档案的日常管理工 作，包括有关诚信信息的征集、登记、审核、更新及管理等工作， 提供网上诚信信息查询服务；并负责起草相关的诚信信息管理 制度，包括信息征集、使用和更新的规则与方法，信息公示的内 容、范围和保留时限，投诉信息的处理办法等.
（3）信息采集。诚信档案信息依法从多种途径采集，充分利 用现有信息资源，从政府部门、医药营销行业等多种途径获得， 并与机构资质、年检制度及专业人员执业资格注册工作有机结 合。不良行为记录，除要求医药营销行业自报外，各级食药监局 也应及时报送医药营销人员的违法处理情况，医药营销人员诚 信档案将按规定予以公示.
医药营销人员获省级表彰或荣誉称号，也可作为良好行为 记录载入执业人员的诚信档案。良好行为记录由医药营销行业 采集或执业人员直接报送.
医药营销人员出现违反医药营销的相关法律、法规的行 为，并受到处罚的，即可将不良行为载入该执业人员的诚信档 案。不良行为记录以营销行业组织报送为主，记入档案视情节 收回或注销执业资格证书.
（4）信息维护和更新。医药营销人员诚信档案是由政府组织建立的，由系统管理部门对信息进行收集和更新。对涉及企 业商业秘密的信息要注意保密，实行授权查询；未经核实的信 息不得在网上公示；不良记录在公示前，必须经过严格的审核 批准程序.
（5）投诉处理。医药营销人员诚信档案系统专门设立了网 上投诉栏目，社会公众可以在网上对执业人员违法、违纪行为 进行投诉，社会公众可按统一格式提交有关医药营销方面的投 诉。系统管理部门对收到的信息进行登记、整理、分类，并根据 被投诉对象和投诉内容，转交有关行政部门进行审核、处理，或 转给被投诉机构进行处理。医药营销行业对系统管理部门转去 的投诉在15天内反馈意见。无正当理由未按时反馈的，将在网 上公示投诉情况。此外，还要公示对违法、违规行为的
整改结 果。如要撤销公示，须由被公示单位或人员申请，经相关行政主 管部门同意，方可从网上撤销；不良行为记录分类在医药营销 人员诚信档案中保留一定期限.
（6）信息查询。按照依法、合理保护企业商业秘密和分类、 分级管理原则，医药营销人员诚信档案可分为公示信息和授权 查询信息两大类.
2.3诚信档案管理的具体要求 （1）为了保证建立医药营销人员诚信档案工作的顺利进行， 需要有正确的理论作指导，要认真总结档案管理工作的经验.
此项任务是一个标准化的体系，在具体操作中，绝非一个档案 部门所能承担的，应由医药营销人员管理部门来研究和牵头运 作，各相关部门相互配合，并且要有现代技术的支持。具体内容 包括：个人诚信信息的收集、登记、评价、考核和诚信信息资源 的共享、诚信档案管理、诚信等级认证等.
（2）对医药营销人员诚信信息的记录采用以“0”为基准的 正负分记录方式，实行等级制，分优秀、良好、一般、较差4个等 级.
（3）保证医药营销人员个人诚信档案信息的公开、透明。信 息既向本人公开，也向广大群众公开，让医药营销人员的诚信 受到社会广大群众的监督。有关授权单位和个人可以在规定范 围内查询医药营销人员诚信档案，医药营销人员对有异议的个 人诚信信息可以提出申请，诚信档案管理部门按照一定程序进 行更正.
（4）要有针对性的对医药营销人员诚信情况进行跟踪考察， 并将考察结果反馈给专门的诚信档案管理部门，使之能定期对 医药营销人员诚信档案信息进行更新.
（5）在诚信档案中根据医药营销人员个人实际情况，追加 提示信息和警示信息。提示信息和警示信息可对出现非诚信行 为倾向的医药营销人员起到提示和警示的作用.
以上探讨建立我国医药营销人员执业资格考试制度及从 业人员个人诚信档案制度的个人见解，主要是从政策层面规范 医药营销人员执业行为，包括制定医药营销人员的准入制度、 加强医药营销人员诚信档案的管理等。要全面提高医药营销人 员的执业素质，还应加强其职业道德与职业修养.
关键词：药品；营销渠道；渠道联盟
在中国的大部分药品营销渠道中，药品制造商、批发商和零售商之间是一种松散的合作关系，各自为政，各行其是，每个渠道成员都追求自己的利润最大化，整个渠道效率低下。在当前激烈的市场竞争中，医药企业仅靠自身力量与竞争对手单打独斗已经很难取胜，因此，医药企业要通过制度的创新，与中间商的密切合作，形成渠道联盟，锻造供销价值链，以获得竞争优势。本文将新制度经济学的相关理论应用于药品营销渠道的研究中，对药品营销渠道的制度创新进行探讨。
一、渠道联盟是一种新的制度安排
新制度经济学发端于科斯，科斯在1937年发表的《企业的性质》一文中认为，“企业与市场是经济组织制度的两极”。科斯引入交易成本作为分析工具，认为企业选择不同制度安排的基本依据是交易成本。企业和市场在资源配置中都有其运行的成本，企业存在内部管理成本，而市场则存在交易成本。如果利用市场方式协调组织间关系的交易成本大于利用一体化组织的内部管理成本时，为了减少交易成本，就会出现一体化的企业，反之，则倾向于市场这一制度安排。企业和市场这两种制度安排可以互相替代。
威廉姆森认为，企业进行不同制度安排的目的在于使生产成本和交易成本最小化，各种制度的安排与经济绩效之间存在一定的关系。他运用了交易成本这一分析工具，从非确定性、交易频率和资产专用性这三个维度变量进行论证并发展了科斯的企业理论。他认为，市场的出现是不确定性小、交易频率和资产专用性低的结果，而当这些变量均处于高水平时，企业成为了有效的协调方式。在市场与企业之间，还存在着一些中间组织形态。随后，拉森认为在市场和企业之间还存在着双边、多边和混合的中间组织的交易形式，提出了“三极制度框架”，即市场—网络组织—企业，并综合了斯密和钱德勒将市场与企业隐喻为“看不见的手”与“看得见的手”的观点，将网络组织称为“握手”，网络组织也随之成为企业间经济活动的一种制度安排。目前，关于网络组织还没有统一的定义，网络组织的含义比较广泛，包含了各组织间以合作关系构成的各种群体。其中，战略联盟是网络组织中比较常见的一种形式，迈克尔·波特认为，“联盟是指企业之间进行长期合作，它超越了正常的市场交易但又未达到合并的程度。联盟的方式包括技术许可生产、供应协定、营销协定和合资企业。联盟无须扩大企业规模而可以扩展企业市场边界”。而渠道战略联盟就是制造商与中间商之间的一种合作形式，也属于协调组织之间经济活动的一种制度安排。
从渠道理论的发展来看，在经历了20世纪初以效率和效益为重心对渠道结构的研究，以及20世纪60年代以权力和冲突为主对渠道行为的研究之后，以联盟为主题来研究渠道关系成为渠道理论研究的重点。西方营销学者们认为，由于营销渠道是一个联合体，各成员为实现自身的目标，存在着利益之争，渠道成员间合作常以失败而告终，为此渠道战略联盟等关系形式应运而生，建立渠道联盟能够解决渠道内和渠道所面临的一些问题，并使各成员获得更多利润，增强他们在市场中的竞争优势。20世纪90年代以后，以奥德森、顾莱惕、贝克尔和斯特恩为代表一些西方营销学家对渠道关系和渠道联盟进行了研究，其研究认为，企业应选择具有互补能力的企业作为建立联盟的对象，因为渠道成员能从联盟中获取更多利润并保持持续的竞争优势，所以不同渠道层次的成员应努力构建和增进渠道内的联盟，渠道联盟的实质是承诺和信任。渠道联盟正在成为渠道创新的方向。因此，本文认为，在药品营销渠道中，从制度层面进行创新主要是构建药品渠道联盟，企业可以建立横向渠道联盟和纵向渠道联盟。
二、建立药品渠道联盟
【关键词】改革稳定；管理滞后；营销问题及解决
随着改革开放，经济制度的不断改革，电力企业自负盈亏的政策出台后，对于县级供电企业而言，电力营销管理是必要的管理手段，涉及到电力企业的生存和发展。提高电力营销管理水平，对于提高企业的经济效益具有重要作用。因此，本文针对电力营销进行探讨。
一、对制约供电营销方面存在的问题进行探讨
落后的电网设备是供电企业营销裹足不前的一个主要原因；体制改革不尽快切中要害，延误了企业经营实体的形成，影响了企业的发展和效益的提高；营销管理粗放，手段单一，是企业开拓市场不足、缺乏竟争力的主要原因；营销配电管理自动化水平低、科技含量少，新技术、新产品的应用率不高，致使运营管理成本高，劳动生产率低，效益不高的主要原因；以及人员安于现状，无竟争意识、风险意识和危机意识，仍然存在着计划经济体制下形成垄断经营管理的优越感，小富即安，观念陈旧、行政管理不适应市场发展的要求等。
二、营销制度改进措施
（一）改革前企业组织管理模式概述。生产技术部为职能部室，主要负责主网的生产技术管理，下设有调度室、变电工区、检修工区、三个地区性供电所共6个二级机构，负责管辖区域内输、变、配设备的运行检修等工作；变电工区同时承担了属地110kV变电站运行代管的职责。营销部为职能部室，主要负责电力营销和低压配网管理，下设电力客户服务中心（电费管理中心）、农电工区2个二级机构。电力客户服务中心负责所辖区域内用户的营销业务工作；农电工区及下属11个供电营业所承担农村综合变0.4千伏及以下用电营销、低压配电网的运行维护等工作。
（二）措施，加强营销管理，挖掘内部潜力，为拓展电力市场奠定基础。
1. 要从重生产管理转变到重经营管理。电力企业同其它企业一样，把追求利润的最大化作为企业经营目标。不能为了生产而生产，为了安全而安全，不论是生产管理还是经营管理，都是手段而不是目的。所以，要从营销、资本、资金管理等方面采取有利于提高企业经济效益的管理方法和激励约束机制，全方位地开展经营管理。
2. 有必要进行用电行业的重新分类，我国现行用电分类是1976年颁布的，目前执行过程中与电力市场的发展极不适应，因为产业层出不穷，原行业经过多年发展演变、改革重组，与原来的用电分类不相吻合，应尽快进行合理科学的行业分类，作为科学定价和市场营销的依据。
3. 发挥价格杠杆作用，优化资源配置。在原电价体系中，政策性分类电价比重太大，两部制电价中基本电价比重偏小，且实施范围小，造成电力部门投资回收周期长。为体现公平、合理分摊电力成本，要科学定价，并且本着国家有利、企业有益、客户满意的原则，在电价执行中发挥弹性杠杆作用。在国家宏观调控指导下和当地物价部门的监管下，适当地由企业灵活执行，有益于促销。
4. 注重做好企业基础工作。客户报装接电、建卡立户，日常的抄表、收费，计量监督、检查，是供电企业营销工作内部完成的一些具体内容。往往由于这些日常工作不慎重，给企业造成经济损失，形象声誉受损，甚至发生营业事故，与客户产生纠纷。所以，要抓好管理，苦练内功，严格规章制度的执行，杜绝事故，减少差错，形成高效的服务，增强客户对企业的信任感。
（三）规范服务，营造出供电企业营销的新概念。
1. 必要的广告是供电企业和客户沟通的桥梁，特别是公益性广告作为供电企业应多投入。如：就安全用电、合理经济用电、电力设施的保护，结合两改一同价工作做一些公益宣传。
2. 供电企业建立电力需求引导展厅。主要开展用电咨询服务，可就用电如何规划、如何安装、日常维护注意哪些问题等介绍给客户；开展电力产品及电器产品演示、展销，假冒劣质产品陈列等，给客户提供电力销售全方位、多视角的咨询、服务。
3. 取消用电申请，将电力客户与供电企业的供需关系完全平等起来，摆正服务与被服务的关系，真正做到客户一个电话，剩下的事由我们来做的服务。
4. 免费给客户提供用电规划、设计、材料计划、资金预算等服务。
做好以上几点的同时，企业的营销服务一定要规范，包括机构的设置，规章制度的建立，人员的行为以及举止用语等，树立起一个全新的企业形象。
（四）应用新技术，实现营销现代化管理，降低成本，提高效益。电力工业做为技术密集型产业，科技含量较高，然而供电企业在配网的管理方面仍然较为落后，开关跳闸、线路短路、接地等故障判断查寻，还很原始，开关刀闸的投切、运行方式的变更还需人工现场操作。营业抄表人员仍要拿着表卡走访千家万户。工作效率低，运行成本高，经营损耗大，是县供电企业效益差的主要原因。在近年的农网改造工程中，采用的新技术、新产品还是很少，科技应用没有渗透其中，建议能否考虑首先从县城配网开始逐步推广，加大科技投入，推广和应用先进的营销管理手段。
五、夯实生产经营基础建设，强化营销信息监控管理
加强供电生产经营管理基础工作的重点主要在基层。基层是供电生产经营管理工作的重要载体，其工作水平的高低直接影响供电管理整体工作水平的质量。县级供电企业领导对此要予以高度重视，切实加强对供电生产经营管理基础工作的组织领导，下大力气，长抓不懈。以求真务实的工作作风、科学严谨的工作态度，深入细致地开展工作，把供电生产经营管理基础工作扎扎实实做好。
（六）坚持依法治企，全面提升服务水平。依法治企的首要和根本问题就是供用电双方的关系问题，是生产经营管理的基础和前提。贯彻落实依法治企，要从观念、机制、环境三个方面入手，从根本上进一步巩固依法治企成果，优化供电服务。强化意识。牢固树立依法治企观念，始终坚持“有法必依，管理必严、违法必究”的治企原则，坚持“内外并举、重在治内，以内促外”的工作方针。健全机制。努力构建科学、严密、高效、规范的生产经营新机制，不断提高管理水平。营造氛围。认真落实“加强咨询辅导，优化办电服务，全面落实公开办电”等规定外。
三、措施整体思路
现代经济发展方式方式既要求从粗放型增长转变为集约型增长，又要求从通常的增长转变为全面、协调、可持续的发展。电力发展也是一样。
因此，电力营销以“管理集约化、机构扁平化、作业专业化”为原则，结合企业实际，对全局生产、营销组织模式进行优化和整合，变革组织模式，以构建功能合理、整体协调、运转高效的组织体系。
四、结语
近年来，县级供电企业基础管理工作虽然取得了较好的成绩，但实际工作中其存在的弊端也日益暴露出来。随着“三集五大”运行机制改革及SG186营销系统上线运行，供电企业必须扎扎实实做好基础管理和基层建设，把各项供电管理工作落到实处。如何审时度势，提高认识，明确目标和要求，促进整个供电管理工作再上新台阶。
参考文献：
［摘要］营销渠道研究是营销研究的一个重要组成部分。随着市场中竞争性环境的变化以及营销理论的发展，营销渠道研究的关注点从强调效率和利益转向强调权力和冲突，进而转向联网以及关系和联盟。在研究渠道治理过程方面，以往的营销渠道研究大多采用以效率为基础的任务环境视角，而在很大程度上忽视了以合理性为基础的制度环境方法。本文提出，营销渠道从本质上说是一种制度安排和跨组织关系。因此，企业在治理营销渠道时，必须关注其决策和行为的接受度与认可度。本文先是回顾了营销渠道治理和跨组织关系方面的理论与研究，进而从中吸收有价值的观点，提出了理论框架和一些命题，并通过两则案例研究进行解释和检验。
［Key words］Marketing Channels ;Inter-Organizational Power；The In stitutional Environment
［关键词］营销渠道；跨组织能力；制度环境
［中图分类号］F712［文献标识码］A［文章编号］1005-6432（2014）5-0008-10
1INTRODUCTION
Wilkinson(2001)divides studies about marketing channels into three stages：channel structures，channel behaviors，and channel relationships.In the first stage，researchers tried to find out ways of optimizing the efficiencies and benefits of managing marketing channels.In the second stage，researchers tried to unveil the power and conflict between channel members.In the third stage，researchers tried to find out ways of reducing or eliminating opportunistic behaviors through mutual commitment and honest.Actually，some scholars had begun to study marketing channels from the perspective of network governance.
In most of these studies，many scholars have used the political economy framework(Achrol，Reve and Stern，1983；Frazier，1999；Hutt，Mokwa and Shapiro，1986，Stern and Reve，1980).Scholars implicitly have ascribed active choice behavior to channel members while stressing efficiency in governing channel relationships.They have considered the implications of environmental uncertainty or dependence on environmental resources for dyadic channel relationships(such as conflicts and cooperation，Dwyer，Schurr and Oh，1987)，power balances(such as power-dependence relationships，Frazier，1983)，and relationships with entities outside the dyads(such as regulators and other actors，Dutta，Heide and Bergen，1999)from traditional economic efficiency perspectives.In the process，scholars have largely overlooked the ubiquitous influences of the institutional environments and how inter-organizational relationships such as marketing channels are embedded in the larger social context(Granovetter，1985；Grewal & Dharwadkar，2002).Recent advances in organization theory suggest that organizations strive for both economic fitness，which emphasizes the competition for scarce resources and underscores the importance of the task environment，and social fitness，which stresses the pursuit of legitimacy in the eyes of important societal stakeholders and pinpoint the significance of the institutional environment.
The term governance has been broadly defined as a “mode of organizing transactions”(Williamson and Ouchi，1981).A more precise delineation was offered by Palay(1984)，who defines it as “a shorthand expression of the institutional framework in which contracts are initiated，negotiated，monitored，modified and terminated.” Heide(1994)states that governance is a multidimensional phenomenon that encompasses the initiation，termination and ongoing relationship maintenance between a set of parties.
In this paper，the authors propose that marketing channels are inter-organizational relationships in the nature.When companies are governing marketing channels，they are actually governing inter-organizational relationships.This is an institutional process.The primary measuring standard of the governing effects is legitimacy，but not the traditional efficiency.
2THEORETICAL BACKGROUNDS AND MODELInstitutional theory holds that a companys institutional environment is made up of the norms and values of its stakeholders，which include customers，investors，guilds，trustee councils，governments，and partners.According to institutional theory，a company adopts some structure，behavior or process to satisfy other stakeholders.This behavior of seeking external recognition is the result of the institutional environments influence.Therefore，legitimacy becomes a key concept in institutional theory.
Suchman(1995)“a generalized assumption or perception of the actions of an entity are desirable，proper，and appropriate within some socially constructed norms，values，beliefs and definitions.” Legitimacy requires companies behaviors to be consistent with public cognition and emotional expectations.That is，companies will adopt those structures，behaviors，and processes that are considered as effective，appropriate，and popular.Accordingly，companies are not rationally pursuing efficiency but conforming to external rules and norms，so as to make their behaviors be accepted，understood，and recognized by other stakeholders.Therefore，gaining legitimacy is of great importance to companies that operate within the institutional environment.In order to gain legitimacy，many aspects of organizational structures and behaviors are designed and performed to be accepted by the institutional environment but not to pursue efficiency.
Marketing channels governance is a part of a companys operations.The decisions，behaviors，and processes of governing channels must be consistent with the companys strategy.They all have to be accepted，understood，and recognized by other stakeholders.This is an institutionalized process.Therefore，gaining legitimacy of their channel-governing decisions，behaviors，and processes is also of great importance.Market channel wont be one of the sources of sustained competitive advantages if the decisions，behaviors，and process are not legitimate.
2.1Inter-Organizational Studies
Inter-Organizational institutions
Institutional theory insists that we should study organizations environments so as to better study and understand companies behaviors and explain organizational phenomena(Meyer & Rowen，1977).Institutional theory divides environments into institutional environments and task environment，which have different influence on anizations should take into account the task environment and the institutional environment as well，since organizations are always influenced by the institutional environments and they are institutionalized organizations.Institutional theory stresses that organizations are able to take initiatives to change their environments so as to better survive and develop.According to institutional theory，a company is operating within a social framework of norms and values.Their economic behaviors are constrained by technology，information，income，and social constructs as well.Being consistent with social expectations is beneficial to their survival and successes(Baum and Oliver，1991；Carroll and Hannan，1989；DiMaggio and Powell，1983；Oliver，1991).Organizations improve their legitimacy，resources，and surviving capabilities through following up so as to gain benefits.
2.2Inter-Organizational Imitations
Inter-organizational imitation of practices and structures plays a central role in several theories of organizational actions(Haunschild，1993).For example，theories of organizational learning argue that organizations copy other organizations，letting others absorb the costs of experimentation or discovery(Dutton & Freedman，1985；Levitt & March，1988；Lant & Mezias，1990).Strategic choice theories suggest that imitation can be a strategic response to competitor activities，so second-movers take the advantages of the fact that the risks associated with product development have been absorbed by first-movers(Lieberman & Montgomery，1988).Institutionalization theory argues that organizations copy practices that adopted by others in an effort to gain legitimacy(DiMaggio & Powell，1983).
It is self-evident that inter-organizational imitations are of great importance.But how do organizations imitate？ Haunschild & Miner(1997)indicate three modes of inter-organizational imitation，including frequency-based imitation，trait-based imitation，and outcome-based imitation.With frequency-based imitation，organizations tend to imitate actions that have been taken by large numbers of other organizations.Several theoretical rationales have been marshaled to support frequency imitation，and considerable empirical evidence documents its occurrence.According to early institutionalresearch，firms adopt practices and structures that many other firms have adopted because when many firms adopt a practice，the legitimacy of that practice is enhanced(Tolbert and Zucker，1983；DiMaggio and Powell，1983).This effect can occur because the desire for legitimacy leads firms to adopt legitimate practices(Meyer and Rowan，1977).In trait-based imitation，organizations may also selectively imitate practices that have been used by some subset of other organizations.Arguments for trail imitation have generally emphasized the importance of social processes.Early institutional theorists(e.g.，DiMaggio and Powell，1983)suggested that firms adopt the practices of “legitimate” organizations and that legitimacy is inferred from traits like large size and anizations may also seek to acquire status by imitating higher-status organizations(Fombrun and Shanley，1990)，which are usually large and successful.With outcome-based imitation，organizations use the outcomes that occur after other organizations use a practice or structure to determine whether they should adopt.Thus，neither the number nor the characteristics of others doing practice “A” is important.Instead，it is the apparent outcomes that occur after other organizations do “A” that determines whether “A” will be imitated.Practices or structures that produced positive outcomes for others will be imitated；those that produced negative outcomes will be avoided.Selective imitation does not arise from features of other users but from perceived consequences of the panies are not limited to only one of the three modes.During the competition，the imitation mode they will apply varies with their competitors and decisions.
2.3Inter-Organizational Power and Dependence
The most comprehensive theoretical statement on inter-organizational power and dependence was a 1978 book by Pfeffer and Salancik，which presented a detailed theoretical discussion as well as the results of a number of the authors earlier empirical works.Pfeffer and Salancik began with four key premises：organizations are first and foremost concerned with survival；in order to survive they require resources which they cannot generate internally；as a consequence，organizations must interact with elements in the environment on which they are depend，which often include other organizations；survival is therefore based on an organizations manage its relations with other organizations.Because organizations depend on elements in their environment for resources，those groups can make claims on them，and organizations may find themselves attempting to satisfy the concerns of these environmental constituencies.According to Pfeffer and Salancik，there are three crucial factors that determine to which one organization depends on another：the importance of the resource to the organizations survival，the extent to which a particular group inside or outside the organization has access to or discretion over use of the resource，and the extent to which alternative sources of the resource exist.
One important feature of Pfeffer and Salanciks discussion is their point that dependence can be mutual.Just as one organization can depend on another，two organizations can simultaneously depend on each other.Power becomes unequal when one organizations dependence exceeds the others.
3CONCLUSION
In order to survive organizations should first be recognized by other organizations or stakeholders.That means they should acquire legitimacy first.Only after acquiring legitimacy can organizations create efficiency through operating resources they obtained from their interaction with the task environment and facilitate organizations sustained development.Therefore，organizations should first consider the legitimacy of their decisions，behaviors，and processes in their operations，and then pursue efficiency.In this way，organizations can survive and develop in the long run.
Since late 1990s，some scholars have begun to elaborate and argue the institutional environments influences(Handelman and Arnold，1999；Homburg，Workman，and Krohmer，1999；McFarland，Bloodgood，and Payan，2004).Grewal and Dharwadkar(2002)indicate that the institutional environment influences the channel attitudes，behaviors，processes，and structures.They proposed a theoretical framework and logic for studying the institutional environments influence on dyadic channel relationships.They developed three institutional processes(regulating，validating，and habitualizing)and their underlying mechanisms according to the various attributes of the institutions and legitimacies，and elaborate on how these processes might influence channel relationships.Reacting to Grewal and Dharwadkars calling for empirical studies on the institutional environment in marketing channels，McFarland，Bloodgood，and Payan(2004)applied institutional theory to examine channel reaction behaviors in supply chains，attempting to explain why fellow channel members imitate one anothers behaviors.The study explains how the institutional environment influence channel behaviors and processes.They argued that institutional isomorphism can provide a rationale for the take-for-granted channel behaviors，which are not able to be explained with economic rationality.
FIGURE 1ORGANIZATIONS SURVIVAL AND DEVELOPMENT
INSTITUTIONAL PERSPECTIVES ON MARKETING CHANNEL GOVERNANCE
In order to study the roles of the institutional environment in marketing channels，we should first know what the institutional environment in marketing channels is.Based on institutional theory(Meyer & Rowan，1977；DiMaggio & Powell，1983；Scott，1987)，we divide institutions into regulatory institutions，normative institutions，and cognitive institutions.We can describe the rules，expectations，and habitual behaviors by dividing the three institutions(Scott & Meyer，1983).But the power and acting space the organizations get are double-edged and locked-in.On the one hand，organizations must conform to rules，expectations，and habitual behaviors required by the institutional environment，which might be a constraint.On the other hand，organizations can tactically use the institutional environment as a resource and an entry barrier as well.Therefore，the institutional environment might be an extraordinary competitive advantage.
3.1Legitimacy in Marketing Channels
In the past decades，sociologists have offered a number of definitions of legitimacy.Pfeffer and his colleagues stressed that legitimacy is an evaluation，but highlighted cultural conformity rather than overt self-justification(Downing & Pfeffer，1975；Pfeffer，1981；Pfeffer & Salancik，1978).In this view，legitimacy connotes “congruence between the social values associated with or implied by organizational activities and the norms of acceptable behavior in the larger social context”(Downing & Pfeffer，1975).Meyer and Scott(Meyer & Scott，1983；Scott，1991)also considered legitimacy as stemming from congruence between the organization and its cultural environment.However，they focused more on the cognitive than the evaluative side(Suchman，1995).Organizations are legitimate when they are understandable，rather than they are desirable.“Organizational legitimacy refers to the extent to which the array of established cultural accounts provide explanations for an organizations existence”(Meyer & Scott，1983b:201；DiMaggio & Powell，1991).Suchmans definition of legitimacy includes the both aspects.He defines legitimacy as “a generalized perception or assumption that the actions of an entity are desirable，proper，or appropriate within some social constructed system of norms，values，attitudes，and definitions”(Suchman，1995).
Our definition of legitimacy in channel governance is based on Suchmans definition.We define channel governance legitimacy as “the extent to which the decisions，behaviors，and processes are accepted and recognized by other stakeholders when they are governing inter-organizational relationships in channels”.
The institutional environment requires legitimate behaviors，so managing legitimacy is of great importance.We argue that managing legitimacy is a dynamic and continuous process(figure 2)，including gaining legitimacy，maintaining legitimacy，and repairing legitimacy(Suchman，1995).Besides，the gained legitimacies are not always effective，since they have lives.When one kind of legitimacy can not satisfy the organizations demand for surviving and developing or a new legitimacy is needed，the organization will begin a new process.Therefore，legitimacy managing is a dynamic and loop process.
FIGURE 2THE DYNAMIC PROCESS OF
MANAGING LEGITIMACY
When evaluating effectiveness and performance of a companys channels structures，behaviors，and processes，we should consider both efficiency，which is influenced by the task environment，and legitimacy that is stressed by institutional theory.An organizations demand for legitimacy is bigger than that for efficiency.Efficiency is only guaranteed in the long run after the organization has gained legitimacy.We can completely understand and explain the process of forming and implementing decisions and explain the problems organizations encounter in channel governance through combining efficiency and legitimacy.The ultimate goal of organizations is not to pursue legitimacy and efficiency，but to gain sustained competitive advantages so as to ensure long-term survival and development(figure 3).
FIGURE 3THE PROCESS OF GAINING SUSTAINED
COMPETITIVE ADVANTAGES
Based on the above discussions，we propose proposition 1 and proposition 2.
H1：Organizations channel governance decisions，behaviors，and processes are embedded in specific institutional environment.The judging standard of channel governance is the extent to which the decisions，behaviors，and processes are accepted and recognized by other stakeholders.The extent determines the possibility of gaining efficiency.
H2：Managing Legitimacy is a dynamic process，during which organizations will apply different strategies to gain，maintain，and repair legitimacy soas to make the extent to which their decisions，behaviors，and processes are accepted and recognized become higher and higher(figure.4).
FIGURE 4JUDGING STANDARD AND OBJECTIVE
OF CHANNEL GOVERNANCE
CHANNEL GOVERNANCE MODEL AND STRATEGY MATRIX
3.2Theoretical Model
Channel governance is a kind of inter-organizational relationship governance in the nature.The fundamental objective of channel governance is to make marketing channel be one of the sources of organizations sustained competitive advantages so as to ensure their long-term survival and development.In order to survive，organizations need to gain efficiency.But it is of more importance that their strategies and behaviors should be anizations should consider long-term benefits as their ultimate objective when they are governing marketing channels.This requires them to apply different governing mechanisms to obtain legitimacy and efficiency.Guo(Guo，Zhan，Hou，Zhou，and Xiao，2004)argued that the sustained competitive advantages gained from channel governance should not only be measured by efficiency，but also be measured by the legitimacy of strategies and behaviors.They expressed the standard as “channel governance efficacy”(figure 5).
FIGURE 5THEORETICAL MODEL FOR CHANNEL GOVERNANCEAll companies are institutionalized ones，whose channel governance decisions and practices are influenced by both the institutional environment and the task environment.With regard to marketing channel governance，the task environment is highly related to uncertainties and dependence an organization encounters，while the institutional environment has an impact on the legitimacy of its decisions，strategies，and practices.Managers should first take into account the demands of both the institutional environment and the task environment when they are governing marketing channels.Then they decide the channel structures and choose appropriate governing mechanisms and strategies to gain legitimacy and efficiency.In the end，they will achieve high channel governance efficacy，making marketing channel a real source of sustained competitive advantages.
Managers should not attempt to reduce uncertainties and dependence at the expense of legitimacy.When managers are trying to increase legitimacy，they are actually reducing the uncertainties and dependence at the same time.Therefore，strategically speaking，managers should reduce uncertainties and dependence in market channels during the institutionalized process of channel governance.
H3：Companies first pursue the legitimacy of channel governance decisions，behaviors，and processes.The higher the legitimacy is，the higher is the possibility of achieving high efficiency.
3.3Channel Governance Strategy Matrix
It may lead to misunderstanding by separate the task environment from the institutional environment in marketing channels，letting believe that the institutional environment and the task environment are independent.But actually，they are not mutually exclusive but concomitant.The two different environments have different impact on marketing channel governance.
Scott(1995)divided both the institutional environment and the task environment into weak and strong and get a two dimensional matrix with four combinations(figure 6).He proposed that different organizations are located on different positions in the matrix.
FIGURE 6CROSS-COMBINATIONS OF THE INSTITUTIONAL
ENVIRONMENT AND THE TASK ENVIRONMENT1
Referring to Scotts Matrix，we propose that organizations belong to different quadrants in different stages of their panies should apply different governing mechanisms and relevant strategies to gain legitimacy and efficiency，so as to improve their channel governance efficacy.
FIGURE 7CHANNEL GOVERNANCE MATRIX
H4：Organizations can apply different combinations of governing mechanisms in accordance with the institutional environment and the task environments influence.
H4.1：When the institutional environments influence is stronger than that of the task environment，organizations should pay more attention to legitimacy mechanisms.
H4.2：When the institutional environments influence is weaker than that of the task environment，organizations should pay more attention to efficiency mechanisms.
4CASE DISCUSSION
In this paper，we conduct a case study to explain our propositions.We study the development of Avon and Amway in China.Since their entry into Chinas market，they have experienced two tremendous changes of Chinas policy.The first change forced to transform their operation patterns.The second one gave them a chance to develop.During the first change，the two companies chose different transforming path.The second change just begins.Our analysis tries to figure out why they chose different transforming paths during the first change and what they should do to deal with they second change，especially what Avon should do to deal with the problems raised by the second change.
4.1Different Transforming Paths
In a response to the policy change，Avon and Amway transformed the operation modes.They both saw the big prospect of China market and wanted to survive and achieve fast development in China.So their operations have to conform to legal requirements and satisfy other stakeholders.After the release of the“Notice on the Relevant Issues concerning Foreign Investment Pyramid Sales Enterprises Change of Sale Modes”，the first thing that both Avon and Amway had to do was to transform their operation modes so as to gain pragmatic legitimacy that is required by legal institutions.Therefore，Avon began to set up counters and stores in Chinas tier-1，tier-2，and tier-3 cities through cooperating with its distributors.Amway set up about 110 counters with its own investment.Avon totally changed its original operation modes and its transformation is considered as a successful example of combining abidance by the rules and market operations.However，Amways transformation is more like temporary compromise.Although Amway set up 110-plus counters according to the Notice，these counters are just Amways outlets.
SCENE 1THE FIRST TRANSFORMINGAvon entered Chinas market in 1990.It applied direct selling as its main distribution channel.Amway entered China in 1995 and it also applied its traditional direct selling to operate its business in Chinas market.However，with the fast development of direct selling in China，some cheating companies rushed out in the name of direct selling.They sold inferior products and were blamed by customers.On April 21 of 1998，China government issued a bill，prohibiting pyramid sales(including direct sales)in China.On June 18 of 1998，the Ministry of Foreign Trade and Economic Cooperation，the State Administration for Industry and Commerce，and State Bureau of Internal Trade co-released the “Notice on the Relevant Issues concerning Foreign Investment Pyramid Sales Enterprises Change of Sale Modes” and regulated that foreign investment pyramid sales enterprises must transform to store operation，urging ten foreign investment direct sales enterprises to transform their operations.
Avon and Amway began to transform in 1999.But the difference is that they choose different transforming paths.Avon began to set up about 6000 counters and stores in Chinas tier-1，tier-2，and tier-3 cities，most of which were invested by its distributors.In contrast，Amway just symbolically set up about 110 counters，which were all invested by Amway.The nature of its operation modes did not change
Actually，their choices of transformation paths are closely related to their strategies and their respective core capabilities.Their choices of different modes are based on their core competences and inherent advantages.They both realized that the closer their transformation directions are to their core capabilities and inherent advantages，the lower the expense will be and the higher the possibilities of achieving successes.
Avon was founded by David McConnell in 1886 and was respected as the originator of direct sales.There are only two levels(SM-FD)in Avons system of direct selling.All its incomes are based on sales.Avon never used words like “up-line or down-line”.This system is totally different from the pyramid sales.Miss Avon only sells products but never persuade anybody to participate in alliances.SM is rather a small distributor in Avons original sales chain.The only difference is that there was no counter at that time.Therefore，Avons transformation is reasonable and logic.
Avons traditional mode is single level marketing.Selling products at fixed places has been invented and promoted by Avon Philippines in 1970s.Avon found that the mode invented by Avon Philippines has a good effect on covering new customers，recruiting and training sales representatives，providing services to the representatives and customers，and building the companys image.Therefore，Avon decided to transform to sell products through wholesaling and retailing.Avon applied and approved the new mode of “store plus salespersons” later，but this was just an alternative choice for Avon.Actually，Avon had transformed from a direct sales enterprise to a traditional manufacturer，which sells its products through wholesaling and retailing.In order to sell products，Avon set up counters in department stores，wholesale products to distributors and retailers，and set up stores of their own.
Amway has been famous for its pyramid sales mode all over the world.Sales are achieved within the multi-level network made up of sales representatives and customers.Amways core capabilities and inherent advantages determined that Amway would not set up too many counters and stores.Discarding pyramid sales，Amway wont be Amway any more.“Amway” stands for “the American Way”.Amway left too much imaginative space for Chinese customers when it entered China in 1995.After its transformation，Amway began to recruit salespersons through the stores.In early 2005，Amway decided to stop recruiting new salespersons and manage its 70000-plus salespersons according to their geographic locations so as to appear to be normative and effective.Actually，Amway has been retaining the essence of stimulation mechanisms of pyramid sales after its transformation，which is a key driving force for its rocket development after the transformation.
The way of implementing sales is the key to distinguish pyramid sales and traditional sales.Amway looks like other commodity manufacturers after setting up stores，but actually the stores are just extensions of its previous distribution center.Up till now，Amway only set up about 110 stores in China.Amway has repeatedly stressed that its salespersons should not sponsor sales training programs in the cities which have no Amway stores.Therefore，the stores are just symbols.They are just Amways storehouses and outlets.The real sales are achieved through person to person sales.
Amways advertisements are used to prove that it has transformed and is not a traditional pyramid sales enterprise any more.But actually，advertising is the basis of pyramid sales in China.When pyramid salespersons are confronted with customers challenges，they will reply with “it is impossible to cheat you because this product has been advertised by CCTV”.But all Amways advertisements are only limited to Nutrition that has brought huge sales and profits to the company.
Amway has left people a impression that it is good at political public relations.Because of its political public relation capability，Amway was not force to really change its operation mode.
4.2Who Suffer From Setbacks
SCENE 2AVON AND AMWAYS DEVELOPMENT SINCE 1998
In April of 1998，China Government released the “Notice on the Relevant Issues concerning Foreign Investment Pyramid Sales Enterprises Change of Sale Modes” and regulated that foreign investment pyramid sales enterprises must transform to store operation，urging ten foreign investment direct sales enterprises to transform their operations.About 7 years later，Avon had set up more than 6000 stores in China and nearly changed into a traditional cosmetics manufacturer.In the contrast，Amway just symbolically reacted to the change and set up about 110 stores.Amway goes on to apply its traditional operation mode.In 2005，Amways sale in China had exceeded one billion US.dollars.China has become Amways biggest market on the globe.Avons sale is four times of that before the change.But it is only 2.4 billion RMB and is less than one fourth of Amways
According to the description above，Amways sale is far better than Avons since their transformations in 1998.Our analysis provides several accounts that might explain the disequilibrium.
First of all，Avons transformation from direct selling to traditional stores caused twitches to Avons development.Avon had to take time to adapt to the sudden change.In the contrast，Amway just set up about 110 stores，which are just symbols of its transformation.Amways operation mode does not change in the nature.For Amway，it is just an investment in channels instead of twitches.Although Amways sale once fell to 10 million RMB in the r＼early stage of its transformation，that was just the temporary result of the release of the Notice.
As a sale method that has been existed in western countries for decades，pyramid sale do have its own merits.It is said that the newly issued “Regulation on Direct Selling Administration” also acknowledges this.Amway did not seek incomes from its salespersons.It was a honest enterprise.Since its transformation in 1998，it gained even more living space，since other pyramid sales enterprises were suffering from twitches raised by sudden transformation.
Secondly，most of Avons profits were taken away by its distributors since its transformation，since most of the stores were invested by the distributors.Amway invested all its stores.When Avon chose to transform to stores，its purpose was to occupy the national market.This could be testified by its rapid expanding speed.Avon wanted to set up stores in most of Chinas tier-1，tier-2，and tier-3 cities，it was impossible for itself to invest in all the stores.Avon had to cooperate with regional distributors.Avon could save money and time as well through cooperation with distributors.But Avon had to separate part of its profits to the distributors，or the distributors would not make investment.This is part of the reason why Avons sale was only one fourth of Amways.
In the contrast，Amways prices did not change after the transformation，since its operation mode was the same.A prerequisite for pyramid sales is high price，which include the profits of multilevel salespersons.The extra high price of Amway products had always been challenged by Chinese consumers.
In the end，Amways success of dodging policy makes those companies that really transformed look like victims.For example，Avon suffered a lot from its real transformation.Amway achieved fast development when Avon was suffering from twitches.
Based on the above analysis，we can find that both Avon and Amway have gains and pains during their first round of competition.Although Avons sale was only one fourth of Amways，its image as “a good boy” had been recognized.This was proved by the first license of pilot direct selling.Beside，its sale had been improved to four times of that before the transformation.Amway developed even faster and its sale had exceeded one billion US.dollar.But it has left an impression of “the bad boy”.
4.3Avons Conflicts with Its Distributors
SCENE 3CONFLICTS BETWEEN TRADITIONAL CHANNEL
AND MODERN CHANNELOn April 8 of 2005，Andrea Jung declared in Beijing that Avon had been approved by the Ministry of Commerce and the State Administration for Industry and Commerce to conduct pilot direct selling in Beijing，Tianjin，and Guangdong.On April 19，Avon announced its pilot plan in Guangzhou.Avon would recruit 3000 salespersons in Beijing，Tianjin，and Guangdong.The salespersons would carry out sales in the three places after being trained.The bonus that the salespersons would get would not exceed 25%of the sales.To guarantee customers benefits，Avon deposited 20 million RMB into an account specified by the Ministry of Commerce as warrants.
However，Avon had no time to applaud its victory since it encountered conflicts between traditional channel and modern channel in Guangzhou.The salespersons could provide products and service to consumers.This leads to pressures on the distributors.Several distributors gathered at Avons headquarters in Guangzhou and desired return of goods
Avon encountered conflicts with its distributors at very beginning of the second round of competition with Amway.We argue that the conflict is inevitable，because Avon didnt take into account the extent to which its decision and plan of the pilot direct selling are accepted and recognized by the distributors，and threactions the distributors would take.At the present，Avon had set up more than 6000 stores and 1700 counters，most of which are invested by its distributors.Avon once promised 34%to 40%profits when it persuaded the distributors to invest in setting up stores and counters.After implementing pilot direct selling，sales would skip the distributors and the salespersons could pick up goods directly from Avon.It was obvious that the stores would be stroked.
We argue that the conflict is inevitable out of the following reasons.
First of all，there exist a wide gap between the objectives of Avon and its distributors.Actually，Avons operation mode in China is not pure single level direct selling，but is more like traditional stores that wholesale and retail simultaneously，since it does not have salespersons team，nor does it have stimulation mechanisms for salespersons.Its main income comes from stores and counters.Avon and its distributors form a relative loosely connected super-organization，whose distinct feature is that the members maintain different and interdependent objective systems.Although both Avon and its distributors have contributed to improving efficiency and saving costs so as to achieving channel objectives，they have different claims and opinions with regard to how to achieve the whole channel objectives.For example，as the only enterprise that got the license for pilot direct selling，Avon surely wants to improve its market share in China and competitiveness through the pilot direct selling，so as to realize its long-term development strategies.However，the distributors treat the pilot direct selling as ominous sign，since pilot selling did not only reduce their sales，but also make their inventories a burden.
Of course，Avon wants to see co-existence of the salespersons and the distributors，providing superior service to Avons terminal consumers.But this seems to be Avons own wishful thinking.The channel conflicts caused by the differences in their objectives will test the marketing skills and channel governance capabilities of Avons top management.
Secondly，the benefits of the salespersons and the distributors are unbalanced.Different channel members play different roles.Each member has its own space and action range.Whats more，each member will try to strive for a decision area that is unique to itself.At the present，Avons income mainly comes from stores and counters，who are the main forces of providing services to customers and promoting Avons development.However，the pilot direct selling will have a great influence on the counters and stores.Since salespersons have the right to pick up products directly from Avon，direct selling can reduce indirect and direct costs.Therefore，they have the price advantages.Maybe in the near future，most of Avons income is gained by salespersons and the stores and counters would become Avons exhibition hall and after-service stations.The benefits of the salespersons and the distributors will be unbalanced.
Thirdly，there exist cognitive differences between Avon and its distributors.Avon believes that the advantage of direct selling lies in person to person sales，since salespersons can send products to consumers homes and offices.The distributors hold that their patrons will become salespersons if Avon implements direct selling，which will directly influence the incomes of their employees and lead to employee drainage.The stores are not pure stores any more after the implementation of direct selling，but outlets for Avons direct selling.This makes the distributors unable to afford the high costs of running the stores.The cognitive difference between Avon and its distributors is also one of the causes of the conflicts.
Finally，it is a result of the conflicts between multi-channels.At the present，consumers can buy appropriate Avon products from various channels，including counters，stores，internet stores，and informal channels such as gray channels and illegal stores.Of course，the stores and counters contribute the most to Avon before the implementation of pilot direct selling，so Avon is highly dependent on them.Avon relies on high profit to keep its distributors loyalty.Nevertheless，direct selling requires lots of salespersons to show its competitive advantages.In order to adapt to the rules of direct selling，Avon has to reduce its dependence on its distributors and pay attention to rear its salespersons.Since its transformation in 1998，Avons distributors have contributed a lot to its development in China.Avons implementation do direct selling will have a great impact on the stores performance.The multi-channel conflict between person to person sales and traditional stores is a twitch that Avon experienced during its transformation.
It is obvious that Avons decision and implementation of direct selling is not accepted and recognized by its distributors，leading to the conflict and hostile behaviors.Avon has to apply appropriate strategies and tactics to solve the problems.
5DISCUSSION AND STRATEGIC IMPLICATIONS5.1Discussions
Marketing channel has been considered as one of the sources of sustained competitive advantages.But few companies can really gain sustained advantages from market channel.In the long-range，the primary goal of a company is to survive and then develop.The competition becomes more and more intensive，so the importance of market channels increase.But in previous studies and practices，researchers and managers paid too much attention to the influences of channel governance decisions and behaviors on organizations performance and overlooked the influences of the extent to which those decisions and behaviors were accepted and recognized by other stakeholders on organizations efficiency.
5.2Limitations and Suggestions for Future Research
Our study is explorative.Some concepts are not described in detail and need further complementation and improvement.The institutional environment and the task environment may influence each other.But the influencing process might be very complicated，so we do not carry out a in-depth study.
5.3Strategic Implications
Our study suggests that it is important for managers to understand how institutional environment shapes channel structures and processes.Institutional environment(1)regulates，(2)validates and(3)gives meaning，to channel structures and processes.Although the influence of regulatory processes is clearly visible and discernible，problems may arise when managers deal with normative and cognitive institutions.By understanding how these institutions constrain and facilitate channel structures and processes，managers should be able to(1)better manage their channel within the confines of the institutional environment and(2)devise strategies to think and move beyond the confines of the institutional environment.
ENDNOTES
1.Scott，W.R.Institutions and Organizations［M］.Thousand Oaks CA：Sage,1995.
REFERENCES
［1］Achrol,Ravi Singh.Reve Torger and Louis W.Stern，The Environment of Marketing Channel Dyads：A Framework for Comparative Analysis［J］.Journal of Marketing，1983,47(4)，55-67.
［2］Daft Richard anizational Theory and Design［M］.11th ed..South-Western Publishing,2012.
［3］DiMaggio P.J.，and Powell，W.W.The Iron Cage Revisited：Institutional Isomorphism and Collective Rationality in Organizational Fields［J］.American Sociological Review，1983,48(2):147-160.
［4］Dutta，Shantanu，Mark Bergen，and George John.The Governance of Exclusive Territories When Dealers Can Bootleg［J］.Marketing Science，1994,13(winter):83-99.
［5］Dwyer F.Robert，Schurr，Paul H.and Oh，Sejo.Developing Buyer Seller Relations［J］.Journal of Marketing，1987,51(2):11-28.
［6］Frazier Gary anizing and Managing Channels of Distribution［J］.Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science，1999,27(2):226-240.
［7］Frazier Gary L.On the Measurement of Interfirm Power in Channels of Distribution［J］.Journal of Marketing Research，1983,20(5):158-166.
［8］Frazier Gary L.，and Antia，Kersi D.Exchange Relationships and Interfirm Power in Channels of Distribution［J］.Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science，1995,23(Fall):321-327.
［9］Frazier Gary L.and Rody，Raymond C.The Use of Influence Strategies in Inter-firm Relationships in Industrial Product Channels［J］.Journal of Marketing，1991,55(1):52-69.
［10］Frazier Gary L.and Sommers，John O.Perceptions of Power Use in Franchised Channels［J］.Journal of Marketing Research，1986,23(5):228-236.
［11］Frazier Gary L.，James D.Gill and Sudhir H.Kale.Dealer Dependence Levels and Reciprocal Actions in a Channel of Distribution in a Developing Country［J］.Journal of Marketing，1989,53(1):50-69.
［12］Grannovetter，Mark.Economic Action and Social Structure：The Problem of Embeddedness［J］.American Sociological Review，1985,91(11):481-510.
［13］Grewal，Rajdeep and Ravi Dharwadkar.The Role of the Institutional Environment in Marketing Channels［J］.Journal of Marketing，2002,66(7):82-97.
［14］Handelman，Jay M.and Stephen J.Arnold.The Role of Marketing Actions with a Social Dimension：Appeals to the Institutional Environment［J］.Journal of Marketing，1999,63(7):33-48.
［15］Heide，Jan B.Inter-organizational Governance in Marketing Channels［J］.Journal of Marketing，1994,58(1):71-85.
［16］Hutt，Michael D.，Michael D.Mokwa，and Stanley J.Shapiro.The Politics of Marketing：Analyzing the Parallel Political Marketplace［J］.Journal of Marketing，1986,50(1):40-51.
［17］Meyer J.W.，and Rowan，B.Institutionalized Organizations：Formal Structure as Myth and Ceremony［J］.American Journal of Sociology，1977,83(2):340-363.
［18］Oliver，Christine.Strategic Response to Institutional Processes［J］.Academy of Management Review，1991,16(1):145-179.
［19］Palay parative Institutional Economics：the Governance of Rail Freight Contracting［J］.Journal of Legal Studies，1984(13):265-288.
［20］Scott W.Richard.The Adolescence of Institutional Theory［J］.Administrative Science Quarterly，1987［J］.493-511.
本规则是规定本公司业务处理方针及处理标准，其目的在于使业务得以圆满进行。
营业计划
(一)每年择期举行不定期的业务会计，并就目前的国际形势、产业界趋势、同行业市场情况、公司内部状况等情况来检查并修正目前的营业方针，方针确定后，传达给所有相关人员。
其内容包括：
1.制品种类、项目;
2.价位;
3.选择、决定接受订货的公司;
4.交货日期及付款日期;
5.契约款品。
(二)有关未来的产品，应按下列要项作为评核：
1.生产、销售产品必须是具有技术和成本上的优势及不为竞争者所能击败的特色。
2.竞争者新产品的制造方式、设备等应取得专利权。
(三)产品种类及项目，应视行情的好坏，订货的繁易等条件，按下列各项进行评核：
1.停止多种类少数量的营业方针，并以尽量减少种类、增加单位数量为原则。
2.以接受订货为主，订货量需加上确实标准品的预估生产销量。
3.所接受的订货数量很多时，除应自行生产外并应注意其他商品销路。
(四)商品价格的定位须区分为目前获利者与未来获利者，并考虑较容易让人接受的价位来决定产品的种类。
(五)在选择、决定往来的订货公司时，须以下列为重点方针：
1.从未来的贸易、特别需要或重要的产业着手。
2.推展公家机关及地方公共机构的开拓。
(六)交货及付款日期，则须恪守下列各项方针：
1.到期必须确实交货。
2.收到订单时，须要求正确的交货日期，并且规定有计划性的生产。
(七)在订立契约时，要尽可能使契约款项能长期持续下去。
营业机构与业务分担
(一)营业内容可分为内务与外务两种，并依此决定各相关的负责人员。
1.内务：
(1)负责预估，接受订货及制作，呈办相关的文案处理。
(2)记录、计算销售额及收入款项。
(3)处理收入款项。
(4)统计及制作营业日报。
(5)制作及寄送收款通知书。
(6)印制、寄送收据。
(7)发货包装及监督。
(8)与客户进行电话及其他相关联络。
(9)搜集、整理产品及市场调查的相关资料。
(10)制作收发文书。
(11)进行广告宣传及制作、广告媒体。
(12)计算招待、出差、事务管理及旅行费用。
(13)接待方面的事务。
2.外务：
(1)探寻及决定下批订单的公司。
(2)对下批订单后的状况进行调查、探究及掌握。
(3)与客户做估价、接受订货及延揽交易。
(4)接受订货后、负责检查、交货的各项联络、协调与通知。
(5)回复客户的通知及询问。
(6)做有关产品进厂及检查的联络。
(7)开拓、介绍客户。
(8)客户的访问、接待及交际。
(9)同业间的动向调查。
(10)新产品的研究、调查。
(11)制作客户的问候函。
(12)请款、收款业务。
(二)外务工作通常会依据客户别或商品别，分别由正、副二人负责工作。正负责人不在时，可由副负责人或其他相关人员代为执行职务。
(三)关于营业方面的开拓及接受订货，则由所有负责管理者及经理负责支援及进行接受订货的联络指导。
接受订货及运筹计划
(一)对于客户的资料应随时加以适当分类、记录下来。相关者或资料取得者也应随时记入所得的资料。
1.把资料分类为对交易有重要性者及不重要者，并记入下列各评核事项：组织结构、负责人员、电话、场所、资产、负债、信用、业界的地位、交易情况、付款情况、交易系统、营业情况、使用场合、交货情况、态度等。
2.除了以上的记录之外，还须将报纸、杂志剪贴下来，分类整理。
(二)营业业务必须依工作部门别及机器别等分掌各项工程的现况及趋势，努力使订货业务与此配合一致。
(三)调查各产业或各地区、各家公司的经营状况，并以此来掌握有利的公司、事业、公家机构等，制定有效的推销政策，并对此展开宣传工作，以利开拓交易的进展。
(四)每月应针对预估及实际接受订货量，制成记录表，并随时与制造部门保持联系。
1.客户下个月预定订货量及本月份的实绩。
2.各品项，各工作别的预定量及本月实绩。
3.交货、请款及收款的预定额及本月实绩。
(五)为使生产及所接受的订货能够容易估算，生产及库存一定要先预估出固定的数量，在接受订货的同时也能做好交货。
(六)如果客户表示热忱并有意举行业务联谊会，公司可借此机会收集情报并借此斡旋、开拓交易。
(七)必要时可设营业开发部门，以此支易的斡旋及开拓。
交易原则
(一)进行交易时，若有必要，须在交货后不定期地访问客户负责人员，以利听取他们对产品使用状况意见，或可利用书信代询。
(二)交货日期原则上由营业部向工务科洽询后决定，或由生产销售检查会议做出决定后通知订货的对方。
(三)交易应设法与对方订立长期或持续性契约，价格方面则另由其他条项规定。
(四)所交出的货品应务求完整、完美。超级秘书网
营业技术预估、接受订货、开拓
(一)预估成本是依据制造部门所预估的成本，并经由常务董事会议裁决，决定后提出给客户。如果产品与过去相同，或曾提出估价单，也须就交货日期及其他修正事项，取得厂长的认可。
(二)在进行预估时，通常需准备下列各项资料。
1.单价表;
2.工时表;
3.成本计算表;
4.一般行情价格表。
关键词：无形资产；营销性无形资产；转让定价制度
中图分类号：F810.42 文献标识码：A 文章编号：1672－3309(2012)01－105－02
一、无形资产的概念、种类与特点
对于无形资产，我们很难确定其准确的定义。国外有学者试图给无形资产定义为在企业的有形财产之外可以为企业创造更多利润的任何无形的财产。经合组织《转让定价指南》并没有对无形资产进行定义，而是采取一一列举的方式对无形资产的范围加以说明。经合组织《转让定价指南》认为无形资产包括使用工业资产的权利，如专利、商标、商号、设计或模型，还包括文学和艺术财产权利以及知识产权(例如技术诀窍、商业秘密)。
我国《特别纳税调整实施办法(试行)》第二章第10条第2款规定：“无形资产的转让和使用，包括土地使用权、版权(著作权)、专利、商标、客户名单、营销渠道、牌号、商业秘密和专有技术等特许权，以及工业品外观设计或实用新型等工业产权的所有权转让和使用权的提供业务。”
由此可见，某些可以带来巨大价值的无形资产并不一定反映在拥有该无形资产所有权的公司的资产负债表的账面价值中。
二、营销性无形资产的种类及价值的决定因素
营销性无形资产包括有助于商业性开发的产品或劳务的商标、商号、客户名单、分销渠道和一些能提升产品价值的独特的名字、符号或图片。一些营销性无形资产(例如商标)可能会受到国家的法律保护。并且仅在所有者许可的产品或服务上使用。营销性无形资产的价值取决于许多因素，包括由商品和服务的质量所培育出的商号或商标的声誉和信誉，而这些商品和服务是在过去的名称或市场中使用的、质量控制的程度、正在进行的研发、正在销售的商品或服务的分销和可用性、为使潜在客户熟悉商品和服务的促销支出的程度以及是否取得成功(特别是为了发展经销商、商或其它便利机构的支撑关系网络的广告和营销支出)、营销性无形资产进入市场的价值和法律规定的无形资产的权利性质等。
需要考虑的是，一项贸易或营销性无形资产何时存在或者是否存在。例如。不是所有研发的支出都会形成有价值的贸易性无形资产，也并不是所有的营销活动都会创造出营销性无形资产。我们很难评价任何特定的支出形成企业资产的程度，并计算某一年该资产的经济效果。
存在营销活动不等于存在营销性无形资产，认定营销活动是否形成了重要的营销性无形资产具有高度的事实依附性，即营销活动应该成功通过该种营销活动建立了可靠顺畅的销售渠道，有效缩短了流通时间：市场认知度因恰当的广告宣传(包括学术性或纯商业性)而提高：消费者的认可度得以不断提升从而增加二次消费率：在信赖度、价格、品牌形象等多方面超越同类产品等。
从会计的角度来讲，记为当期费用的营销费用不具有无形资产的性质，只能被认为是期间费用。以获取将来收益为目的而资本化的支出会形成无形资产，随着收益的实现而摊销。从经济学的角度来讲，不论会计处理原则如何，即使是作为当期费用处理的营销费用，只要是对无形资产的形成做出贡献的支出。就应该反映经济实际，确认为形成无形资产而发生的递延费用。
三、我国营销性无形资产转让定价制度现状
现阶段，我国法律并没有对营销性无形资产作出规定。我国法律中既没有对无形资产进行分类，也没有营销性无形资产的概念。营销性无形资产的概念只是反映于商标、品牌的规定中，而大部分这种规定又与专利等贸易性无形资产混为一谈。随着营销性无形资产转让定价成为全球关注的焦点。我国也开始关注关联企业通过其营销行为创造的营销性无形资产的价值和利润归属。
我国一直以丰富的自然资源、廉价的劳动力和优惠的引进外资政策吸引外国跨国公司在华投资。跨国公司在中国的分公司、外国公司驻中国的常设机构创造了大量的营销性无形资产。但由于我国营销性无形资产转让定价制度的空白。大量由营销性无形资产创造的利润被归入了境外的母公司，这严重损害了我国的税收利益。这一做法忽视了中国市场的特殊因素对利润产生的带动作用，并且未对国内企业在市场开拓过程中的利润贡献予以适当确认。另外，我国一直鼓励国内企业“走出去”。创造国际品牌，但缺乏国内法律对营销性无形资产的保护，我国企业创造的营销性无形资产的价值也会流失。所以，在法律中明确营销性无形资产转让定价制度有着重大的意义。
四、营销性无形资产转让定价制度的立法完善
营销性无形资产作为无形资产的一种，它的转让定价方法与无形资产的转让定价方法是一致的。即在无形资产转让定价制度的框架下。我国营销性无形资产转让定价制度的立法需要在以下几个方面加以完善：
(一)在立法中引入营销性无形资产的概念
我国现存的法律尚不存在营销性无形资产的概念。《OECD转让定价指南》认为营销性无形资产是商业性无形资产的一种，还特别与贸易性无形资产作了对比。我国税务机关应借鉴《OECD转让定价指南》中的相关概念，在立法中将无形资产加以分类，并引入营销性无形资产的概念。
(二)搜集关联企业关于营销性无形资产的有关信息
1、制定相关法律法规，鼓励纳税人达成关联企业内部关于各自所承担的职能和风险的协议。
2、对于营销性无形资产，制定相关法律法规，以明确关联企业内部由营销性无形资产所带来的各自利润归属。
(三)界定并记录营销性无形资产
在跨国企业内部，如果营销性无形资产由我国纳税人所拥有，并且广告营销推广费用确实增加了该营销性无形资产的价值，那么该营销性无形资产应为我国纳税人带来超额的经营利润。如果无形资产由跨国企业集团内的外国纳税人所有，但是市场营销活动是由我国纳税人实行，则我国纳税人应被看作市场推广活动而创造的营销性无形资产的部分或全部的所有者。对企业的营销性无形资产的分析与对经济的分析密不可分。而准确、可靠的经济分析主要源自于跨国企业内部双方对营销性无形资产的分销协议或许可协议。如果某一个经济实体需要对营销性无形资产进行投资，那么预期的投资额度需要明确记录下来。企业的内部定价政策应该充分反映出该企业的额外投资及假设的额外风险，并应该合理预期该无形资产可能带来的利润。纳税人可以通过经营范围、经营场所、投资项目等记录。在与关联企业的协议中界定其运营的营销性无资产。
(四)界定营销行为的日常开支与非日常性开支
在企业日常经营活动中。对广告推广等营销行为，应界定哪些开支属于日常性开支，哪些开支属于非日常性开支。以此来认定由营销行为所创造出的营销性无形资产，并确定营销性无形资产所产生的利润归属，并据以征税。
关键词:知识经济;知识营销;营销策略
中图分类号:F71文献标志码:A文章编号:1673-291X(2010)19-0179-03
当前,世界已经步入知识经济的时代,知识成为一国发展经济的资本,知识的积累和创新成为促进经济增长的主要动力源,企业的发展也从依靠资本积累转向依赖知识的积累与更新。在知识经济的背景下,知识营销是知识经济发展的必然要求,它强调产品和服务的网络化、智能化和定制化,不仅在改变着人们的消费方式和消费观念,而且还在改变着传统的营销方式和营销法则。对于处于激烈市场竞争中企业来说,谁能运用好知识营销,谁就能在市场竞争中争取主动,从而获得良好的经济效益和社会效益。
一、知识营销的定义和特点
所谓知识营销,是指企业通过运用现代信息技术,向广大消费者不断传播与企业产品有关的知识,并且通过知识创造需求,全面满足消费者个性化的现实需要和潜在需要,以实现消费者满意和企业长期发展的一种营销方法。其本质是企业在营销过程中注入知识含量与文化内蕴,帮助消费者增加产品知识,提高消费素质,从而达到推介产品、树立形象、打造核心能力、提升品牌忠诚度、实现培育市场的目的。
知识营销作为现代企业参与市场竞争的新营销形式,主要具有以下特点:
1.知识营销是学习营销。知识营销是企业围绕着产品销售,以知识学习为主要手段所展开的一系列营销活动。主要包括以下几个方面:首先,企业向消费者和社会宣传自己的产品和服务,推广普及新技术;其次,知识营销不仅使消费者从直接的产品消费中实现一定的使用价值,而且还从企业那里学习到相关的知识文化;最后,知识营销可以通过在互联网上建立具有成本低廉、无存货样品、全天候服务和无区域界限等特点的虚拟商店和虚拟商业区进行广告促销和市场调查,在企业和消费者之间建立了一个交互式的信息交流系统,使企业与企业之间、企业与消费者之间可以相互学习,实现零距离沟通,为提升企业市场响应能力提供了保证。
2.知识营销是绿色营销。随着人们消费的日益健康化、理性化,强调节约资源、防治污染、保护生态环境的知识营销成为企业营销的主要方式。企业在进行知识营销时恪守绿色理念,坚持企业的一切生产经营活动都要以保护自然资源和生态环境为出发点,把经济效益与社会环境、自然环境紧密结合起来,在满足消费者需求的同时,减少环境污染,保护和节约资源,在生产过程中开发绿色产品,在销售中实施绿色营销组合策略。
3.知识营销能够统一消费者、企业和社会三者利益。知识营销不仅为全社会带来可观的经济效益,更从根本上提高了全社会的知识素质。从贝因美知识营销的效果来看,既为企业带来了巨大的经济效益,又为消费者带来了新的科学观念,既满足了消费者提高育婴水平的要求,也为社会带来了整体文明水平和知识素质的提升,使三者的利益达到了完美的统一。
4.知识营销能够开辟新市场。传统的营销只是去占领市场,在有限的市场中尽力扩大自己的市场份额,将市场看做静止不变的,而知识营销则是培育和创造市场、拓展市场,变有限市场为无限市场。它是以知识带动需求,以满足需求来创造市场,使具有创新精神的企业在市场竞争中处于主动地位。
二、贝因美知识营销的内容
贝因美创于1992年,坐落于西子湖畔的杭州高新技术开发区内,是以婴童业为主体、致力于婴童行业的专业化集团公司,涉及婴幼儿食品、用品生产、研发、销售等多个相关经营领域。贝因美自主研发生产的贝因美系列婴幼儿食品,涵盖代乳品、断奶期食品和辅助食品三大类,专为中国宝宝研制,共计200多个品种。产品以遵循国际安全保护法规为前提,关注孕妇和婴儿两代人的身心健康和智力提高,同时倡导绿色、环保、健康、安全的科学理念。十多年来,贝因美从产品的研发、生产、销售到全方位的生、养、教服务,成功打造出“爱婴工程”、“育婴工程”和“亲母工程”三大工程,在生育、养育、教育等多个层面为中国宝宝的健康成长提供服务。此外,贝因美借助现有的营销网络、渠道和品牌影响,突破原有产业格局,广泛拓展服务领域,以特许连锁加盟的业态模式介入整个孕婴童用品、食品、服装及玩具等行业,全方位发展婴童业。贝因美正努力朝着中国孕婴童产业的领跑者和综合运营商的目标不断迈进。
婴幼儿食品在中国有着巨大的市场。婴幼儿食品不同于一般的产品,它关系着国民素质的提高,关系着祖国的未来。由于婴幼儿食品结构复杂,加上市场上产品众多、功能各异,作为生产企业,无论从产品销售的角度,还是从对消费者负责的角度,都存在消费引导问题。因此,贝因美决定走知识营销路线。贝因美的知识营销策略包括内部营销知识与外部市场知识两个方面。内部营销知识,包括企业战略、文化、资源等各方面的知识,是企业对营销基本思想的确立和发展方向的构想,是对营销观念的创新,形成与企业长期的营销实践。外部市场知识是与企业存在联系的客户、竞争者等对企业营销活动产生重要影响的各种外部因素所形成的综合体,主要通过对消费者的需求和行为、竞争情况和竞争优势的确立以及如何适应环境并发觉市场机会进行及时的总结、提炼形成的。立足于以上两个方面,贝因美制定并成功实施了知识营销战略――通过爱婴工程提升贝因美品牌形象,通过育婴工程传播育婴知识,这不仅提高了对消费者责任感和满意度,而且在消费者心目中树立起可信赖的育婴专家品牌形象和领导地位,以赢得竞争优势。
(一)育婴工程
育婴工程主要通过向消费者传播育婴知识,其宗旨是通过持续的努力,传播科学育儿知识,促进中国婴幼儿全面健康成长。包含“生育、养育、教育”三个层面,主旨是倡导“优生、优育、优教”。主要内容包括系统开展科学育婴咨询活动,资助有关机构及研究人员深入开展促进婴幼儿生长发育和健康的科学研究,资助、组织交流科学先进的育婴知识、研究成果和经验,向全社会传播科学的育婴知识。
1.在全国各地设立贝因美育婴咨询服务中心,以会员制形式向孕妇和养育3周岁以下婴幼儿的年轻妈妈提供各类服务,通过全新的科学育婴理念和方法,全方位帮助她们科学育婴;聘请众多著名儿科医生、营养学家,开通北京、上海等地的12条育婴免费咨询电话,并开设800全国免费咨询热线免费为消费者提供服务。
2.倡导科学喂养,定期评选奖励健康宝宝。这是贝因美传播育婴知识的一个全国性平台,对中国儿童安全健康的成长起到了极大的推动作用;编著出版中国第一部育婴专著――《育婴指南》,包括婴幼儿的营养、培养、更有贝因美专家讲堂板块,家长可以获得权威育儿指导,轻松成为育儿专家;免费向全国新生儿家长发送《科学喂养手册》,普及婴儿科学喂养知识;独家斥巨资创建以提供怀孕、早教、胎教、育儿等科学生养教资讯为主的中国育婴网。中国育婴网设有育儿论坛、育儿问答、宝宝博客等互动频道,为宝宝生长之路提供充足的源动力。
3.加强对新生儿资料库的管理运用,对消费者进行跟踪调查。建立用户数据库,对用户进行跟踪服务,将科普宣传与产品促销紧紧融为一体。通过消费者意见反馈,改进产品和服务,使消费水准得以提高,价值得到提升。十几年来,贝因美在上海、杭州的部分幼儿园设立早教班;各地分公司还组织早教队伍,进入社区,对1~2岁的散居婴幼儿开展早教指导活动,加强幼儿园与社区的联系,帮助社区家长更好地进行优生优育、科学育儿,取得了良好的效果和反响。
(二)爱婴工程
爱婴工程是贝因美对有特殊困难的婴幼儿家庭进行资助的一项更具针对性的公益活动,是贝因美企业文化内涵的延展和传播。主要内容:对特殊困难的婴幼儿家庭进行资助,如多胞胎、残疾人家庭;向特殊新生儿提供人道主义援助,如弃婴、孤儿等。设立全国性的爱婴基金,让更多需要帮助的婴幼儿得到及时有效的援助。
1.成立贝因美多胞胎之家。1993年开始,贝因美向全国三胞胎以上家庭免费提供两年营养米粉;1997年,贝因美成功策划举办“情满中华・全国四胞胎大团聚”活动,并于当年正式筹建成立全国首个“多胞胎之家”,设立多胞胎基金。目前已累计向300多家经济有困难的多胞胎家庭提供近300多万元的援助。
2.向全国各地各儿童福利院和其他特殊家庭捐助大量产品,至今价值近1 000多万元。2007年,贝因美与中国儿童少年基金会联手共同设立1 000万元的“贝因美母婴关爱基金”,旨在关爱弱势群体,把爱心献给最需要的人群。首批启动的100万元基金,针对农村0～2岁留守女童展开了援助。与此同时,从灾区婴童的长期需要考虑,贝因美还联手中国儿童基金会启动了为期六年、预算达1 200万元的“四川地震婴童公益扶养计划”,向灾区的孤儿、单亲家庭及认养孤儿的家庭提供长期的全方位养教扶助。
3.倡导优生优育,开展产前检查,提高人口素质。通过经济、简便和安全可靠的检测方法,从孕妇群体中发现怀有某些先天缺陷异常胎儿的孕妇个体,进而采取措施以最大限度减少异常胎儿出生,从而提高整体人口素质。
贝因美紧紧围绕育婴工程和爱婴工程,立足知识营销组合策略,以最大限度创造消费者满意和消费者、社会的长期利益,从而实现了贝因美自身的市场价值和知识社会价值。
三、贝因美知识营销给我们的启示
贝因美采用知识营销策略,稳扎稳打,赢得天下。通过树立“育婴专家”的大旗,全面打造“育婴工程”和“爱婴工程”,不仅进一步提升了品牌价值、深化了企业文化内涵、员工的素养也进一步增强,更重要的是使贝因美通过知识营销将育婴咨询紧密联结妇幼保健、婴幼儿食品和婴幼儿用品,以最大限度地提高顾客满意度,维护消费者、社会的长期利益,从而实现了贝因美自身的市场价值和社会价值。从贝因美知识营销可以看出,知识营销贯穿整个产品的生产过程,其实现需要企业的技术平台、企业文化、员工素质、企业形象等支持,是考验企业管理者管理能力、员工执行能力的营销方式。
1.搭建完善的技术平台。贝因美有着完善的信息化营销服务平台及包括客户服务管理系统、电子商务系统、UFmobile系统、Call Center系统、专家知识系统、市场营销管理系统、决策支持系统等在内的ERP系统,为员工进行知识交流、提高知识学习与共享能力提供技术支持提供了保证,如通过专家知识系统,员工可以获取外部信息、截取情报资料、推动产品知识、宣传企业形象;通过UFmobile,贝因美搭建了与客户沟通的短信平台,可以随时提供服务、辅助销售、留住客户、提高效率、品牌整合与延续,并可以通过短信促销、客户关怀、新品上市通知、促销信息、会员生日提醒等模式,将其几十万的客户资料进行有效的管理,每天从短信平台中就可以得到几百条客户需求线索,形成一个良好的宣传渠道。
2.打造高素质营销人员。知识营销要求企业员工用知识去赢得消费者,而营销队伍的高素质是保证企业产品中的知识含量能被客户感知和接受的条件,是知识营销能否成功的基础。高素质营销人员需要有良好的知识获取能力、知识整合能力、知识共享能力、知识创新能力,并通过各种能力的综合,实现市场营销的全过程知识管理。贝因美不定期开展各种知识营销讲座,在企业中创办辅导班,开展企业文化拓展,对企业销售人员进行知识培训,使销售人员充分了解企业知识与文化,努力增强销售人员的责任心、主人心、学习心、自信心和合作心。帮助营销人员做到不管发生什么问题对公司、客户不抱怨,因为抱怨解决不了问题;指导营销人员不满足于自身目前的成绩,因为满足自己容易消磨意志;引导营销人员如何具备良好的心理调节能力,不断改变自己、战胜自己以突破自身的发展瓶颈。由此,贝因美销售人员不仅可以凭借丰富的专业知识、信得过的使用技能向消费者传播产品中的知识与信息,引起消费者的认识和认同,从而促使消费者接受和购买企业的产品,同时,面对日趋个性化的产品需求,贝因美销售人员可以自行通过研究消费者的消费心理、文化品位和价值观念进行有针对性的促销,以个性化、人性化的服务,去满足消费者。
3.提升品牌价值。品牌价值的理性层面是以产品为基础,带给消费者的实际利益。当消费者从产品中获得的利益与满足感超过所支付的代价就会产生对该品牌理性层面的认同,这就是品牌核心价值的基础。贝因美品牌从创立之初就有着良好的品牌内涵与健康的品牌架构。“育婴专家”的品牌定位,准确地抓住了年轻父母的心态,极具权威性和亲和力,旨在全面地关心、帮助婴幼儿的健康成长。同时,贝因美产品在同类产品中品质较高,针对中国宝宝身体系统有更为专业和营养的育婴方案,在产品的开发和创新上也居于领先。贝因美产品扎实的品质根基,成为进一步提升品牌的最为有利的基础,在强化品牌认知的同时进一步拉升品牌,占领高端市场空间。这一独特的品牌路线,不仅使贝因美从国内外奶粉品牌的双面夹击中走出来,把奶粉行业品牌混战的局面巧妙地转变成“中国婴儿奶粉”与“西方婴儿奶粉”两大阵营;更令贝因美一跃成为“中国婴儿奶粉”阵营中站在塔尖的品牌。由此,贝因美有效地规避了与竞争对手的直接对话,稳固了贝因美“育婴专家”的地位,也使下一步与消费者的沟通成为可能,其品牌价值进一步得到提升。
4.深化企业文化内涵。企业文化建设以人为本,就是要通过环境熏陶、认知结构、管理规范、规章制度、行为培养等措施,使员工形成正确的价值评判和价值选择,形成良好的心理和行为模式,推进企业的发展。贝因美努力推崇“以人为本、员工以事为本,价值认同、目标达成”的管理理念。从创业伊始,贝因美就在传播着爱心和奉献的企业文化,将“爱心”和“奉献”这一观念深化于每个员工心中,以爱为核心,倡导爱心事业、爱心企业(品牌、文化、产品)、爱心员工,深化“生命因爱而生,世界因爱而美”的品牌理念。“爱心”和“奉献”作为贝因美的企业文化进一步深化,体现了贝因美的价值,也是贝因美的共识,这将会对贝因美每一个员工产生更深远的影响。
参考文献:
[1]李健.营销新方式:知识营销[J].企业文化与管理,2005,(4).
不管是白酒企业还是饮料行业抑或是其他消费品企业，战略和执行都是企业发展的两极，相互联系，密不可分。几年前，有一本书《细节决定成败》，作者以大量案例论述了“细节”在管理中的重要性；而后出现了《战略决定成败》等等很多“山寨”的版本，本人认为，对某一层面，战略、细节、执行都可以决定成败，差那一方面都不行，但仅仅有细节或者有战略也不能通向成功。
战略、战术、执行都是不可偏废的，也就是说，只有“系统”才能达成目标。
有人可能会说，战略是大企业的事；战略是高层的事情，至于营销管理人员来说，大多情况做的是执行的事情，至于战略可以不用过多考虑。此话对吗？表面看起来很有道理，但细细想来却也未必。
就拿一个区域市场举个例子。一个区域经理要做好一个市场，需不需要战略思维、需不需要策略和战术，需不需要系统整合？难道坐等公司制定一切，然后依葫芦画瓢进行所谓的规划或执行，之后市场就豁然开朗了吗？当然不是了。一个区域市场的负责人肯定是区域的战略和战术的制定者，执行的第一负责人，责无旁贷。当然，这个区域的战略和战术是在公司的整体战略和策略之下的，往往将两者联系得更紧密的区域管理人员，会如鱼得水，大展拳脚。
所以说，只有在方向正确之下，执行力的提升才能更好的完成企业营销目标，否则，执行力越强，离目标越远。
成功人士喜欢讲“故事”，将你带进一个精心营造的“梦境”，殊不知，但有些成功是个体的，复制不了。那么，对于企业的营销和一线企业营销管理人员，他们需要什么？他们需要的是途径和方法，即提升执行力和达成目标的方法。
要保证执行力，需要做好三方面的工作，其一，明确的目标；其二，完善的制度；其三，优异的团队整体素质。
1、明确的目标。这里所说的目标不是战略目标，基层员工和一线管理人员并不关心这些，他们接触到的是阶段性的目标，注意：阶段性的目标。一个个小目标，如进店数量、铺货率、销量完成、费用控制、促销活动制定、执行、效果等等。
2、完善的制度。并不是仅仅是处罚措施，也要有奖励、协助、指导、配合的制度。很多企业制度和表格很多，大家每天填表，成了“作家”，但实际上，很多表格是没有用的，只能起到心理安慰作用，纯粹是自欺欺人，表面文章。事情一来，大家相互推诿，不愿意承担责任，能少做就少做。一些职能部门认为营销就是吃喝玩乐：你们在外面舒服得很，还要这要那！回去报账的时候，你会看到某些财务人员的那种形态，只可意会不可言传啊。怪不得一个做销售总监的朋友说：我会不定期将公司的一些后勤人员和行政人员拉去市场搞活动，让他们体会一下销售到底是怎么做的，钱是怎么赚回来的！
