发布时间：2023-02-22 05:28:05
序言：写作是分享个人见解和探索未知领域的桥梁，我们为您精选了8篇的教学技能论文样本，期待这些样本能够为您提供丰富的参考和启发，请尽情阅读。
(一)备课:分项过关。
备课即在进行正式的课堂教学前对课堂教学进行整体设计，内容包括课标研读、文本解读、学情了解、目标设定、重点确立、难点挖掘、过程设计、方法选择、课时安排、课件准备、板书设计等，最终落实到教案编写。课堂如同战场，教案如同作战计划，其重要性毋庸置疑，对课堂教学质量起着重要作用，其中既体现出师范生对教育教学理论的掌握情况，也体现出他们的专业综合能力，难度较大，可以采取分项过关的方式。可以先过文本解读关，然后练习目标设计，初步掌握目标确定的方法，能够运用比较规范的语言表述教学目标。如:“学生(行为主体)在课堂讨论中(行为情境)，至少能够比较(行为动词)两种(行为标准)课文所用修辞手法(行为对象)的异同。”之后进行教学过程设计的训练，在对程翔的“起领—教读—自读—总结”四步单元教学过程模式、钟德赣的“中学语文反刍式单元教学法”以及潘凤湘的“八步教读法”、魏书生的“六步法”、钱梦龙的“导读法”、余映潮的“板块式”等单篇课文教学过程设计及依据了解的基础上模仿总体教学过程设计，再根据课堂教学过程所需技能分项训练，如导入、提问、讲解、结课、板书等。这样一步一步逐项训练，最后对整个教学设计进行修正，相对会减轻备课的难度，而且比较扎实。
(二)说课:开口论辩。
说课是既要说出课上什么、如何上，又要说出为何要这样上，既考察教师的实践能力，又考察其理论素养，是进行教学研究、培训师资的重要活动形式，可放在课前，也可放在课后。课前说课，主要说为何这样设计，可起到对课堂教学矫正的作用，增强上课的理性;课后说课，主要说为何这样设计及课堂教学实效，可起到检验教学设计的作用，反思意味浓厚。说课能力提升的关键在三个方面:一是提升理论素养，撰写好说课稿。说课稿一般要涉及五个方面:说教材、说学情、说教学目标及重难点、说教法学法、说教学过程，其核心应是说出教师本人对教材的独特理解及教学设计的思想、思路，力求达到既具备科学性，又具备理论性、可操作性。二是多开口练习。稿子过关后读熟，直至脱稿，把握好说课的时间，提高说课的逻辑性与艺术性，力求语言表达条理清楚，层次分明，字正腔圆，悦耳动听。三是在论辩中提升说课水平。一般训练把说课仅仅作为了一种形式，师范生说课完毕后辅导教师点评一下说课就结束，忽视了说课的根本目的是为了与同行及专家交流。所以说课训练除了让师范生准备好说课稿，自己多开口练习外，应有重要的一环，即提问与答辩。教师与其他师范生在说课结束后可模仿专家与同行，针对教材内容、目标设置、教学思路、方法选择、重难点突破等提问，使说课者在与专家及同行的对话交流中进一步明晰自己的教学设计，提升说课水平。
(三)讲课:自讲合作。
自讲即按照教案设计，自己在空教室或其他地方反复演练，进一步熟悉教学内容、教学流程、教学方法等，发现疏漏，及时修改。这一步是非常重要的，它有利于培养师范生的自主学习意识，也为下一步保障小组合作学习的质量打下基础。试讲中的合作学习主要体现为小组活动及班内交流，在个人讲熟之后把全班师范生编为小组，在小组内试讲，进一步发现问题，使教案更加科学，教学更加有效。还可结合年轻人精力旺盛、争胜好强的特点，在组内展开比赛，以赛促讲。小组试讲之后，组内选拔代表进行班内交流。讲课要求抓住重点，突出重点，让学生掌握重点，透彻理解重点，能够结合运用，转化为能力最好。因为师范生的试讲没有真实的教学对象，缺乏真实的体验，讲课易出现两个问题:其一是忽视学生的学，以个人讲解为主。讲课中要培养师范生一种教学生学，引导学生喜爱、理解、欣赏、运用祖国语言文字的意识，而不是当知识的“掮客”。其二是贪多，一节课要解决的问题很多，结果每个问题都是走马观花，要引导师范生学会一节课着重解决一两个问题。这些都要在师范生自讲与合作学习的反复练习中加以解决。
(四)评课:先写后评。
评课实际属于教学研究范畴，评课训练不仅使师范生具备评课能力，更重要的是起到如何导引教学的作用。从以往师范生的评课来看，存在的最大问题是过多关注外在的东西，如教师的仪容仪表、语言表达等，对教学内容是否适切、教学方法是否灵活、课堂结构安排是否合理、学生接受是否难易等涉及较少。还有的要么全评优点，看不到问题;要么全评缺点，一概否定，抹杀授课者的创造，严重打击授课者的自信。作为师范生的能力弱项，不妨先练习写较详细的评课稿，慢慢明确评课的原则、内容、方法后，再写较简略的评课稿，直至最后列出要点评课甚至打好腹稿脱稿评课。评课稿主要包括评课的内容与思路。评课内容包括教学目标、教学内容、教学方法、教学程序、板书设计、教学效果、教师素质等方面。评课思路可以有两个:一是按照上述内容逐项点评;二是抓住一项或几项内容点评，先说优点，再提出问题，最后提出建议。评课稿必须有理有据，不能只有论点。评课可培养师范生的反思意识，自我反思有利于师范生专业发展，因此在他评前应该先自评，进行自我剖析。
二、专业核心能力提升策略
培养学生听说读写能力是语文教学的基本任务，语文教学能力的高低，除了与师范生掌握的教育教学理论、学科教学理论高度相关外，其自身具备的听说读写能力也是非常重要的影响因素。听说读写能力本身也是汉语言文学专业师范生区别于其他专业师范生的重要标志，是进行教学的基础、底气、看家本领，可称为专业核心能力。听说读写能力的训练始于小学一年级，直至大学四年级，本文着重探讨在语文课程与教学论专业课学习中如何有意识地培养师范生听说读写的能力。
(一)听:课例讲座。
教师要对学生的答问做出反应，具备良好听力是教师必备的素质之一，对语文教师来说更是如此，因为对话教学是语文教学的重要原则，而对话的基础是理解与尊重，其表现则是倾听能力。现在的大学生，个性都比较强，善于自我表现，对别人缺乏应有的尊重与理解，可借助师范生课堂试讲、见习、听讲座等机会，对其进行听的能力的培养。一是善于倾听，在别人讲课解说时尽量不交头接耳、嘀嘀咕咕地说，有问题记下来，可在小组互动、师生互动环节进行表达。二是听课、听讲座要专心听，记录要点。三是边听边思，记录自己的感想、问题。通过一段时间的训练，师范生听的能力会有所提高。
(二)说:备课讲课。
说课就是说备课，是面对同行专家介绍说明自己的教学设计及其设计依据的教学研究活动，是培训师范生的重要方式，也是训练汉语言文学专业师范生说的能力的良机。说课前要求其撰写好说课稿，自己课下反复练习，直至脱稿，然后小组内说课，借助微格训练，调出录像反复查看比对，查漏补缺，提升说课的逻辑性、艺术性，从而提升说的能力。讲课中的讲授技能训练、课堂引导及课例观看后的反思评课，也是提升说话能力的机会，可组织师范生辩论研讨，一方面增加了开口说话的机会，另一方面加深了对教学的理解。比如针对案例发表自己观点的即席讲演，考察了师范生多方面的知识储备，特别是训练了师范生敏捷的思维能力、快速的语言表达能力和灵活的应变能力。
(三)读:教育名著。
读书，应该是语文教师的一种生活状态，语文课程与教学论中阅读能力培养的主要凭借是教材及语文教育名著。汉语言文学专业师范生文学名著读的较多，语文教育名著阅读量较少，对语文教材的阅读也比较忽视，不明白语文教材阅读与一般阅读不同，一是不管喜欢与否都应细读，二是阅读中不仅有教师与文本的对话，还有教师与作者、教师与编者、教师与学生的对话，从而把语文教材阅读简单化。针对上述情况，可在课程开设之初，向学生开列语文教育名著书单，推荐语文教育名著，如《叶圣陶语文教育论集》、《导读的艺术》、《中国著名特级教师教育思想录•中学语文卷》等，以及语文教育报刊杂志《中学语文教学》、《语文建设》、《中学语文教学参考》、《中国教育报》、《语文报》等，要求做好笔记，在合适的时机以读书报告会的形式进行交流。语文教材的阅读可以结合课堂教学，形式多样，如朗读、诵读、细读、读书报告会等。
(四)写:教学论文。
研究，也是教师的生存状态，是未来语文教师不可或缺的能力要素。教师需要对教育教学进行创新，如果认为其只是技能的叠加，则教学活动就会很快陷入满足，继而无趣，行而不远，体验不到职业的幸福感、愉悦感。目前，语文教育科研的训练欠缺，毕业后能够写出教研论文者寥寥。只有认真从事教学研究的教师，才能够更深刻地理解教育教学的规律，更好地运用技能传授知识。要学会在调查中了解，在实践中反思，在研讨中提升教学科研能力。要结合教材分析、教案设计、说课稿撰写、评课稿撰写、读书笔记、调查等常规训练活动，引导学生发现问题、思考问题、解决问题，进而把探讨的结果用文字表达出来，并在写作中创新。写作是思维的利器，是教师专业化的必由之路，教师只有写，才会写，如果能够把其中优秀的文章修改发表，对师范生会产生更大的激励作用:一方面在写作中提高了写作能力，保留了精神作品;另一方面也体验到了问题解决的喜悦，增加了对原有问题的认知与解决能力。
三、结语
（一）明确教学目标
2010年之前，中等幼儿师范学校的专业名称不是学前教育专业，而是幼儿教育专业,这一改变意味着教育部门对于幼儿教育的重视及其思维变化。幼儿文学作为专业课程，其目的在于培养幼儿文学的教育人才，其应该具备扎实的文化知识和文化底蕴,以便向幼儿传递文化思想，具备深厚的幼儿文学素养,以便向幼儿传达文学知识，具备执着的探究精神,以便更加清晰有效的教育幼儿。为了达到这样的目标，幼儿文学教学应努力陶冶学生的情操,提升学生的文学感悟能力，使学生能够充分掌握幼儿文学的基本原理,掌握幼儿文学的发展状况,学会从现实的文学作品和教学中发现新的研究的课题。
（二）认识学生的主体地位与其他学科及课程的教学模式相同
幼儿文学的课堂里,教师仍是以教为主，忽略了学生的学习主体地位，一味地以满堂的言语进行授课，然而这与现代教育理论是相悖的,教师是教的主体，而学生是学的中心，教师教的目的在于学生的学，因此必须转变思维，认识并理解学生主体地位的重要性，提高学生的学习兴趣，发挥其主观能动性。教师应该将重心放在学生的学习欲望与兴趣的激发、学生学习能力与创造能力的提高上面来,协助学生进行自主化学习模式。此外,教师在充分认识到学生主体地位的同时，也要认识到学生学习的目的，形成教师以学生为中心，而学生以未来实用性为指导的学习模式，教导学生认识到幼儿文学教育的最终目的在于组织以幼儿为主体的文学活动,并进行适当的教学与学习。
（三）突出语言训练
强化口语技能口语专业水平对于幼儿文学的学习也是十分重要与关键的，因为幼儿文学需要在对文学作品进行鉴赏的同时,还要进行听说表演与诵读、故事的表演，而学生的口语专业技能在此就发挥了强大的作用,口语能力越好,其幼儿文学这门课程的学习效果也就会越好。因此,为适应幼儿园实践的这个需要,在对学生进行幼儿文学这门课程的教学时，必须加强学生对于语言能力的训练,强化学生的口语技能水平。在幼儿文学教学的儿歌单元,可以让学生分别进行儿歌的表演,让其自主自由地进行编组，选取曲目，并进行一定的串联和主题编排,进行有准备的表演,既能提高他们对于儿歌的乐趣领会,也能提高他们的学习兴趣，又能加强口语技能的锻炼与学习。
（四）模糊学科界线
渗透幼教内容幼儿文学和语言教学法在幼师专业的教学当中是两个不同的课程，两者之间完全独立设置，毫无交叉。因此，我们需要将幼儿文学与语言教学法之间的限制打破，模糊他们的科学界线,使幼儿文学与语言教学法更加紧密配合,提升教学效果。例如，在幼儿文学教学里,儿歌和幼儿诗分别是两种不同的文体,在教材设置上面也是分开为不同的章节，并进行详细介绍、学习和创作，而在语言教学法里,儿歌和幼儿诗则统称为幼儿诗歌，是一体化的。因此,我们可以看到并得出这样一个结论，幼儿文学教学的重点在于学习并了解文体特点,训练写作技能,强化作品鉴赏能力，而语言教学法的教学重点则是培养学生利用幼儿文学作品进行教学活动的能力，掌握整个组织活动的流程，从作品选材到过程设计再到案例分析，因此二者是天生的合作者，老师应充分发挥这种合作的作用。
二、结语
中职会计教学存在的多种问题，使中职会计教学得不到很好的发展，而会计技能大赛为会计教学的改革指明了方向。职业学校的老师要以技能大赛为风向标，切实加强会计教学改革，真正做到以赛促学，以赛促教，以赛促改，推进中职会计教学改革。
1.1以技能大赛为导向，创建灵活的教学模式技能大赛的内容和主题主要体现了社会会计岗位对会计专业学生职业能力的要求。中职学校应该根据技能大赛的主题和内容，改革以往死板的教学模式。教师在教学过程中应以工作过程为导向，以真实的工作任务为载体，创设学习情境，分解工作任务，建立多个学习小组，充分利用多样化教学资源，采用多种教学方法，使课堂教学具有较高的可理解性和可操作性，这样既能激发学生的学习兴趣，唤醒学生的参与意识，又能达到理论和实践相结合的目的。这就对教师提出了更高的要求，不仅要有丰富的理论知识，又要有丰富的实践经验以及熟练的专业操作技能，有利于教师整体素质的提高。
1.2建立激励机制，提高教师整体水平经济越发展，会计越重要。会计属于应用型学科，必须要学以致用。这就要求要以职业能力培养为主线的教学改革，必须加强“双师型”教师的水平，而不能使“双师型”教师流于形式。会计也是一门发展很快的学科，税法制度、会计法规都会不断在变化，经济业务处理也会有些变化，这就要求老师要经常学习，不断更新自己的会计知识。同时，要想在学校保留“双师型”教师，必须要引入竞争机制。这些教师除了日常教学，还要有大量的实践投入到知识更新中，有些还担负技能大赛的任务，压力之大，难以想象。这就要求学校要给这些教师较高的肯定和待遇，以平衡其消耗投入。除此之外，学校可以经常请一些会计专业机构的高级会计人员到学校开讲座，不仅可以让学生了解到最前沿的会计讯息，也可以使校内教师和高级会计人员进行交流学习，提高自己的专业水平。
1.3完善实训设施建设，加强实践教学要想进行好的会计实践教学，除了才软件上提高，还要完善实训设施的建设。会计技能大赛是在仿真财务、会计、税务、银行、供应商等环境中进行的，，那么学校的实践教学建设可以以技能大赛为进行建设。学校可以和技能大赛的设备、软件供应商合作，创建接近大赛和企业实际的实训实验室。按照会计的不同流程创立不同功能的实验室，采用企业真实案例，让学生真账真做，让学生在仿真的会计环境中熟悉会计的不同岗位的职责和工作内容，使学生的理论知识通过实践得到强化。同时，在会计课程设置上采用日常实训和专项实训相结合的方法。技能大赛对操作能力有较高的要求，因此训练方式相当重要。电算化软件在日常上课时可按照模块分步练习，点钞需要在平时强化不同方法的训练，数字录入需要强化指法的练习。基本方法掌握后，就需要强化练习，不仅要求准确度，更要求熟练度。
2结语
从教育学专业的角度来看，教学有效性的本质是一种价值属性。具体来说，教学有效性蕴含三层含义：一是教学效果。它关注学生对知识的掌握情况和学习行为的好坏；二是教学效率。它是指通过某种方法和手段，大大缩短学习者的学习时间，从而增加单位时间内目标的达成数量；三是教学效益。它是指教学目标与特定的教育需求是否贴合以及对贴合程度的评价。在生物教学中恰当地运用强化技能，既能发挥教师的主导作用，又能调动学生学习的积极性。具体而言，它主要有以下几个功能：第一，吸引学生的注意力，使学生能把注意力长期集中到教学活动中，减少和防止教学外因素刺激形成的干扰，延长学生注意力的持续时间，使教师更好地把握课堂教学。第二，激发学生的学习动机，影响学生的学习态度，使学生明确学习目的。强化技能可以适当地为学生提供行为反馈信息，让学生重新评估自己，在反省中进一步巩固和发展好的学习行为。同样，对于缺点和不足的恰当评价反馈，能使学生明确差距，减少不良行为发生的概率。第三，加强学生情感情绪体验，促进教与学之间情感情绪的双向交流。在教学过程中，不同的强化技能会引起学生不同的情感情绪体验。一般而言，肯定性评价能引起学生愉悦的情绪体验，否定性评价能引起学生不愉快、紧张的情绪体验。教师人格的影响渗透，能在具体的强化中传递给学生，他们真挚的爱、顽强的意志、良好的期待、严谨的治学方式都为学生树立了典范，增加了强化的影响力和可信度，促进学生积极主动地参与活动，从而有效提高教学效率。第四，巩固学生的正确行为，有助于学生形成自我强化，从心理上获得满足感，也有助于学生了解行为评价体系，并把它内化成自己的评价体系，这是自我教育的一个重要组成部分。只有这样，学生才能进行自我激励，不断自省反思，形成真正的内部动力。
二、灵活运用强化技能，提高课堂教学有效性
强化是课堂教学中一个重要的研究变量，教师的一个目光、一个微笑，一个手势、一句话，都会增强或减弱学生的学习动机，也可以成为强化学习的动力。在生物课堂教学中，笔者总结出强化的五种类型。
1.语言强化
语言强化是指教师用的语言评论，如表扬、鼓励、批评指正等方式，对学生的反应或行为做出判断，或表明态度，或引导学生互相表扬、鼓励和批评指正，使学生向所期望的方向发展倾向更加明显。语言强化分为口头语言强化和书面语言强化。口头语言强化经常用于课堂教学，是对适时、正确的学生学习行为和结果进行口头表扬、肯定、鼓励或批评指正。如“回答得很好”“想想还有没有需要改进的”等，它既可以是肯定性评价，也可以是否定性评价；书面语言强化，是指教师在学生的作业练习或试卷上写下的留言性评价，能对学生的学习行为产生强化作用，使学生感受到教师对自己的注意和关照。
2.标志强化
标志强化就是符号强化。在教学过程中，教师会使用一些醒目的特殊符号，如用彩色粉笔作波浪线标注、写副板书，或使用三角形、五角星等符号来突出教学内容，强化教学活动。
3.动作强化
动作强化也称体态语言强化，是指教师运用身体动作、表情和姿势等，对学生表示教师的态度和情感的教学行为，手势、目视、点头或摇头等都是常用的动作强化。教师在生物课堂教学中运用一些体态语言，有助于学生理解所学的知识，对某些事物或结构形成空间立体感。如在解剖玉米种子时，学生不太理解纵切和横切的概念。这时，教师除了借助挂图或课件等教具之外，还可以借用一个模型，模拟玉米被切下去时的动作，来区分纵切和横切，这样就能给学生一个动作强化。
4.活动强化
学生感兴趣的学习活动本身就是一种强化因子，情境教学法就属于这一类型。如在教学软体动物时，教师可由“鹬蚌相争，渔翁得利”这一典故导入，配上动漫的形式，就能极大地吸引学生的注意力，调动学生的学习热情。然后，教师再因势利导，提出“河蚌靠什么结构能紧紧夹住鸟的嘴”“蚌壳长时间关闭，会不会憋死”等问题，学生在兴趣的引导下，会积极地思考，展开热烈讨论。整个教学过程既生动活泼，又富有情趣，令学生乐在其中。
5.变化方式
强化变化方式强化是教师通过变换信息、反复刺激的方式，强化学生对某个问题的反应，以实现预期的教学目的。如在教学《输送血液的泵——心脏》时，除了指导学生读图之外，教师还可以引导学生观察心脏的结构图，让学生拆卸组装心脏的模型，最后再观看有关心脏3D结构的视频，以多维方式循序渐进地强化学生对新知识点的理解。
三、实施强化技能应把握的原则
在生物教学中，教师要帮助学生形成正确的行为，激发学生的学习热情。不适当地强化，会对课堂教学产生负面影响。因此，教师在教学中运用强化技能，还应该把握好一些原则。
1.一致性原则
运用强化的目的，在于把学生的注意力吸引到学习中来，提高学生参与教学活动的积极性。在教学中，教师对学生的强化内容、性质、标准要保持一致，避免前后矛盾。如针对同一内容、同一行为，教师不能今天批评，明天表扬，这会让学生感到无所适从。
2.客观性原则
它是指在教学中，强化必须科学、合理、客观、公正，不凭教师的主观意愿和偏见来评价学生，这样才能使学生心悦诚服。情感真挚、热教爱生是执行客观性原则的要素，教师热情、诚恳的态度会对学生施以积极有效的影响。此外，学生是运动发展中的人，要与时俱进地以发展的观点来指导强化，着眼于学生的动态发展，进行针对性的强化。
3.及时性原则
及时的强化有利于行为与强化之间建立直接的联系，克服无关因素的干扰。如果强化与该行为的间隔时间过长，则强化的指向不明确，会引起学生行为的混乱。这就要求教师做好全面、细致的工作，能及时、准确地判断出学生的反应。
4.效能性原则
基于SWOT的研究生自我教育能力分析
SWOT分析方法又叫态势分析法，是上世纪80年代由美国管理学教授提出的一种能够较客观而准确地分析和研究一个单位现实情况的方法。S(strengths)代表优势，W(weaknesses)是劣势，O(opportunities)指机会，T(threats)表示威胁。其中S和W主要指影响被分析单位发展的内部因素，O、T主要是对被分析单位有影响的外部条件。下面将通过对研究生主体自身内部条件、面临的外部环境进行有机结合来清晰地确定研究生自我教育的能力，了解研究生在进行自我教育方面有哪些优势、劣势和所面临的机会和阻碍。
(一)S(strengths)
研究生具有较高的自我意识。所谓自我意识，就是一个人关于自身的认识，是作为主格我的自我对作为客格我的自我的存在活动及其过程的有意识的反应，也就是对个体自身及其与外部世界关系的一种认识。自我意识的高低是与个体的生理、心理成熟度密切相关的。个体的自我意识从产生到发展到相对稳定需要相当长的一段时间。从总体上看，研究生多是接受过本、专科阶段教育的成年人，与本科生相较，其知识结构更加完整，知识层面也更为广泛，同时多数研究生还具有一定的社会经验或工作经历，这就使其生理、心理成熟程度都要高于本科生，其独立性也强与本科生。对自我的认识也比本科生全面与深刻。因而研究生自我意识也就高于本科生。自我意识的高低直接关系着自我教育的可行性及效果。自我意识高的个体要求强调自我，怀有对自己独特的看法和态度，能够对自己的行为进行沉思和反省，继而做出一定的行为，以解决在活动中出现的问题。所以，较高的自我意识是研究生进行自我教育的一大优势。
(二)W(weaknesses)
考研的盲目性削弱了研究生进行自我教育意识。自我教育意识是指个体要有自己对自己进行教育的认识，与自我意识相比，自我教育意识更为重要。自我意识是关于“我”的认识，而自我教育意识则是对“我要怎样”的认识。但目前研究生对于我要怎样的意识并不十分明确，原因在于研究生在选择读研的动机不单纯。一方面，是为了缓解就业压力。2010年，全国本科生毕业人数达到630多万，而市场为本科生提供的就业岗位远远低于毕业生人数，为了缓解就业压力，多数本科生选择了考研。另一方面，是提高就业竞争力。研究生大多是抱着通过读研获取学位增加就业的砝码以利将来的就业这一想法报考研究生专业的。因为在现实中，研究生相对本科生还是有一定的优势的。他们的目的只是为了获得一张硕士毕业文凭。然而研究生教育的培养目标是研究生在本门学科上掌握坚实宽广的基础理论和系统深入的专门知识，具有独立从事科学研究工作的能力，在科学或专门技术上做出创造性成果的高级专门人才。研究生更注重的是培养学生研究问题和分析问题的能力，特别是从事该学科科研教学的能力。而盲目考研导致研究生的目的不在本专业的学习、研究上。研究生的学习在于自主性，如果学生对学习不感兴趣也就谈不上自我在科研、学术上有所投入。这也是出现研究生学术水平、论文质量不高、论文造假等现象的主观原因。主体没有明确的目的也就不会有自我发展和自我完善，也就大大降低了研究生自我学习、自我管理、自我约束的自觉性和主动性。
(三)O(opportunities)
提高研究生自我教育意识和能力的外在机会体现在两个方面:一是导师制，二是实践机会较研究生多。导师制是研究生教育与本科生教育最大的不同，也是研究生进行自我教育的最有利的外在因素。“学为人师，行为世范”，研究生导师多是在该专业领域有很深造诣的教授或学者，理论功底深厚，思想品德高尚，在专业知识领域给研究生以指导，在行为思想上给研究生做出表率。教育部颁发的《教育部关于加强和改进研究德育工作的若干意见》(以下简称《意见》)亦指出:研究生导师对研究生为学为人都产生着重要影响。
导师在研究生自我教育意识和能力中所起的作用就是能激发研究生的自觉性，促进研究生的自我反思。导师是研究生阶段接触最多的，导师与研究生的关系不仅是师生关系，还可以是朋友、亲人的关系。导师与研究生这一关系的特殊性可以从多方面影响研究生进行自我教育。一方面，研究生导师以个人魅力为研究生做出表率，使研究生以导师为学习对象以形成我要成为怎样的人的意识。另一方面，导师对研究生进行教育。导师对研究生的学习提出要求，研究生为达到导师的要求而进行自我学习与自我管理，这是通过外在强制力来达到激发研究生学习的自觉性。
能力总是在实践活动中得以表现和发展，并直接影响着活动的顺利完成。助学助管助教是高校为提高研究生提供锻炼能力的主要平台。各种研究生会、社团亦是锻炼研究生自我教育能力的机会。研究生在亲自体验的基础上对自己的行为进行反思、评价，然后进行自我调节，在不断的认识———实践交替过程中形成自我教育的能力。另外，由于研究生课程较少，研究生有更多的课余时间接触社会。
(四)T(threats)
1．实践活动单一、缺乏针对性。目前高校对研究生的实践活动主要是助学助管助教，没有制定适合研究生专业性质和未来就业发展方向的实践锻炼形式。这就导致研究生自我教育意识的不明确。
2．我国一直以来都缺乏自我教育的传统。长期以来的应试教育方式削弱了研究生自我教育意识。现在的研究生从小学到大学接受的一直是应试教育，导致了研究生养成了被动的学习方式和学习理念，完全依赖于外在的规范、要求、路径，一旦改变教育方式，很多研究生是不适应的。
3．群体间教育氛围影响研究生自我教育。良好的学习氛围是能够影响自我教育意识和能力的。自我教育不仅是自己对自己的教育，也是通过他人教育对主体的激励来刺激主体的自我学习的，这种他人教育不仅包括老师也包括研究生群体之间的相互学习与影响。研究生的独立性较强，其学习与生活多少独立进行的，同时，由于课程相对较少，研究生之间的联系也减少，多是独立进行学习，这就会造成研究生群体之间的相互影响与学习的机会减少，学术氛围也淡薄。
结论
1．完善导师制，强化研究生自我教育意识。研究生自我教育意识本就较高，只是一些外在因素影响了其自我教育意识，因此这就需要完善导师制，让导师多与研究生接触，以导师的言谈、行为方式提高自我教育意识。完善导师制从以下几个方面出发:首先，加强导师与研究生之间的接触与联系;其次，减少导师带学生的数量;再次，导师适时适量的给研究生布置学术任务并检查指导。
本文首先分析了经济学专业开设学年论文教学的必要性，然后分析学年论文教学存在的主要问题及其原因，最后提出提升学年论文质量的对策与建议，以达到提升学生的写作能力和培养学生实践创新能力的目的。
［关键词］
学年论文；创新能力；经济学专业
0引言
培养学生的创新实践能力和全面提升学生的综合素质，是高等教育的主要目标。创新实践能力在大学生能力体系培养中居于核心地位。经济学是一项专业性和技能性都很强的工作，现代社会对经济学人才的需求层次越来越高，创新实践能力已成为经济学本科生的核心竞争力。学生的创新实践能力需要通过诸多环节的培养来实现，本文重点探讨在学生创新实践能力培养中起着重要作用，却被大多数高校所忽视的学年论文这一教学环节。
1经济学专业开设学年论文教学的必要性
目前大多数高等院校的经济学专业并未开设学年论文这一教学环节，但是，学年论文教学环节不仅有利于培养学生的创新实践能力，而且有助于提高毕业论文的质量。
1．1学年论文是提升学生创新实践能力的重要方式
创新是引领发展的第一动力，是现代社会的本质特征。大学生创新能力可分为学习能力、研究能力和实践能力三个方面。其中，学习能力是指能自主地获取所需的信息和知识，并能进行独立思考的能力，这是培养其他创新能力的基础；研究能力是指能自主确定研究题目、制定研究计划和撰写研究论文的能力，是创新能力培养的关键；实践能力是指运用相关知识解决实际问题的能力，是创新能力培养的目的。学生创新能力的培养要从整体上系统地进行，学年论文作为关键的教学环节，起到承前启后的作用。在学年论文环节，学生根据对现实经济问题的观察，确定研究题目，界定研究内容，运用科学的研究方法，解决现实中的经济问题，这无疑会对学生创新实践能力培养起到积极的促进作用。
1．2学年论文是提高学生毕业论文质量的有效途径
经济学专业学术论文要求学生综合运用相关的理论知识和方法，深入研究现实中的经济问题，这是经济学专业教学工作的重要环节，也是对教学质量的检验。目前经济学专业学生论文普遍存在选题空泛、内容空洞、缺乏创新、抄袭严重等问题，既没有与社会实际需要相结合，也不能很好体现经济学专业特点。究其原因，可以概括为以下几个方面：高校扩招、就业压力等方面的社会原因，导致毕业生素质下降且精力投入不足；高校的认知不到位和管理制度设计不合理等方面的原因，造成管理松懈；教学模式和课程体系等方面的原因，造成忽视学生写作能力的培养。经济学专业论文写作能力的培养是一个循序渐进的过程，仅靠短期突击训练效果很难见效，应靠长期的积累来提高。学年论文在学生已掌握一定专业知识的基础上，结合实际经济问题展开研究，同时加强学生写作能力训练，学生不仅可以培养自己的研究兴趣，还可以为毕业论文写作奠定良好基础。
2经济学专业学年论文教学中存在的主要问题
2．1认识模糊
学年论文是本科生实践教学的重要环节，要求学生在不占用正常教学时间的情况下完成，一般在第二学年和第三学年末进行。由于高校扩招带来的就业压力，很多高校对学年论文的作用认识不够，没有将学年论文列入本科生培养计划。同时，学生对学年论文也很不重视，低年级学生习惯通过考试来取得学分，对撰写学年论文感觉不适应；而高年级学生面临考研和找工作的压力，更是无暇顾及自己的学年论文。
2．2缺乏有效的管理机制
对本科学年论文教学进行管理是一项复杂的系统工程，它涉及出题选题、过程辅导和成绩评价等环节。当前，我国只有少数高校推行学年论文制度，学年论文管理还存在诸多问题，缺乏有效的管理机制来确保学年论文的质量。同时，指导老师的积极性和责任心不强，未对学生进行必要的指导和监督；学校虽有学年论文的教学环节和要求，但未建立学年论文教学的激励与评价机制，使学年论文这一教学环节未落到实处，形同虚设。
2．3高校的教学科研资源不足
随着高校招生规模的不断扩大，教师数量相对严重不足，平均每名教师要指导30名以上学生的学年论文，还要指导学生的毕业论文，同时还有其他的教学科研任务，教师不堪重负。老师在指导学生学年论文时，投入的时间与精力都有限，直接影响了学年论文的质量。很多高校的学术资源严重不足，数据库无法满足学生撰写论文的需求，尤其是国外数据库缺乏；图书资源数量有限，学生能检索到的文献资料非常有限，这直接影响到学生学年论文质量的提高。
3经济学专业学年论文教学存在问题的原因分析
3．1社会环境因素
就业率和考研率成为当前衡量我国高校办学质量的重要尺度。在高校不断扩招的背景下，大学生就业难成为突出的社会问题。大部分用人单位在招聘本科生时，对论文及其质量无人问津，论文成绩不会影响自己的就业，所以，学生对论文很不重视，只要能通过就行。对于那些致力于考研的学生，因研究生招生对本科论文也不够关注，大部分时间和精力都用于理论课的学习，以应对研究生入学考试的初试和复试，甚至有些学生将学年论文的写作当成负担，敷衍了事。
3．2高校本身的因素
高校自身的认识不到位，许多高校对学年论文的重要性认识不足，并没有把学年论文列入重要的议事日程，学年论文工作仅仅是走走过场而已。学年论文管理制度设计不合理，存在许多尚需完善之处，制度中空话套话太多，缺乏行之有效的管理实施办法和明确的标准，使学年论文管理制度在实施过程中形同虚设。制度贯彻执行力度也不够，未将相关规定落到实处，多流于形式。高校目前面临着很大的招生与就业压力，如果对学年论文要求太高，会导致许多同学难以正常毕业，将影响到学校声誉与学生就业，因此，在实际执行中，常出现对学生学年论文放低要求。
3．3教师方面的因素
由于高校的扩招和新专业不断开设，造成高校师资力量严重不足，师资结构很不合理，教师既要承担大量的教学和科研工作，又要面临职称评定等多重压力，这将影响到学生学年论文的质量。由于高校制度和社会环境等方面因素，出现重课堂教学，轻学年论文的导向，导致教师在指导学年论文时责任心不强，投入的时间和精力非常有限，这也直接影响了学年论文的质量。同时，有些教师自身知识结构相对陈旧且更新缓慢，专业技术能力与实践能力不强，不能给予学生以实质性指导，这都影响着学年论文质量的提高。
3．4学生方面的因素
大多数用人单位在招聘本科生时只关心学习成绩和获得的各种证书，使得学生认为学年论文没有什么实际用处，只要能顺利通过即可。同时，学年论文质量与学生的专业理论知识及自身综合素质密切相关，许多高校学生的知识水平与能力不足，且很少进行学术论文写作相关的训练，缺乏文献检索能力和创新精神，不能将理论与实际很好地结合起来，影响了学年论文的质量。
4提升经济学专业学年论文质量的对策措施
4．1提高认识，加大宣传
学年论文有利于培养学生实践创新能力和解决实际问题的能力，是经济学专业教学实践上的重要环节，从目前的实际来看，很多老师和学生对学年论文的重要性认识不够，应加大宣传，提高师生对学年论文的认识。通过撰写学年论文，使学生熟练掌握学术论文的基本规范，深化对所学专业知识的理解，能为将来撰写毕业论准备。
4．2科学组织，合理安排
结合经济学专业特点和社会实际需要，开展经济学专业学年论文工作。首先，将学年论文工作纳入学校日常教学工作，从出题选题、过程监管与成绩评定等环节来确保论文质量；其次，要科学合理安排学年论文组织工作，妥善安排学年论文的工作流程与时间，综合考虑人才培养的目标、学生和教师的承受能力，真正发挥学年论文在实践教学中的重要作用，提升学生的学习、思考及写作能力；然后，论文题目应难易适中，既要有理论价值，又要有实践意义，符合本专业培养目标，保证学生通过努力能在规定时间内完成写作任务，提高自己运用经济理论解决实际问题的能力。
4．3加强过程管理
严谨规范的管理制度是学年论文顺利运行的基本保证，过程管理的完善对学年论文质量的提高至关重要。学年论文作为实践教学的重要组成部分，需要其他教学环节相互配合以保障顺利进行。需要建立学年论文过程长效管理机制，学校相关部门应结合专业特征，统筹规划，从命题选题，师资配置，论文规范，学生纪律，成绩评定等方面制定具体实施办法。同时，学年论文的过程管理直接关系到论文的质量，应加强学年论文过程的监控，制定成绩评定标准，让学生真正得到老师的专业指导，提升学生的研究能力和写作能力。
4．4重视实践创新能力培养
学生的学年论文是培养学生实践创新能力的有效途径，在实施过程中应发挥学生的主动性和创造性，以学生实践创新能力的培养为目标。老师在指导过程中应注重学生研究内容的学术性与规范化，重视学生逻辑分析、论证推理、归纳演绎等方面能力的训练，引导学生自主学习、独立思考，使学生的写作能力、实践能力和创新能力得到了锻炼和提高。
5结语
学年论文质量的提高是一个复杂的系统工程，并非一朝一夕所能实现。需要学生的努力、教师的重视、学校相关制度的完善作为保障，以达到提升学生的写作能力和培养学生实践创新能力的目的。
作者：莫旋 阳玉香 单位：衡阳师范学院经济与管理学院
主要参考文献
［1］王伟，周景坤，章胜晖．国贸专业本科毕业论文选题与写作问题的剖析［J］．对外经贸，2013（11）：142－144．
[论文摘 要]在第二语言的习得过程中,文化背景的差异将会导致交际困难以及交际信息的流失,因此,在外语教学过程中,文化教学必然要占一席之地。本文从理论角度阐述了跨文化交际的定义和目的,并提出如何培养学生跨文化交际的能力。此外,作者探讨了文化教学的目的与意义,提出将文化教学贯穿于整个外语教学过程,从而使学生能够真正具备跨文化交际的能力。
1.引言
语言是文化的载体,是文化密不可分的组成部分,它既受文化影响,又反作用于文化。在交际过程中,语言不仅受到语音、语法等规则的限制,还受到使用规则的制约,这里的使用规则即指语言所属的社会文化,社会文化决定语言使用是否得体。在第二语言的学习过程中,外语学习者往往会将自己本国固有的文化模式嵌套入新的语言文化中,造成沟通的障碍,这便要求教师将文化引入到外语教学中,培养外语习得者跨文化交际的能力。
2.跨文化交际能力的培养及运用
2.1 跨文化交际的定义、目的
跨文化交际指本族语者与非本族语者之间的交际 , 也指任何在语言和文化背景方面有差异的人们之间的交际。由于不同的民族所处的生态、物质、社会及宗教等环境不同 , 因而各自的语言环境产生了不同的语言习惯、社会文化、风土人情等等诸语境因素。不同的文化背景造成人们说话方式的不同,进而造成沟通的障碍。由此,这便要求我们在外语教学过程中注重培养学生的跨文化交际能力。一般来说,跨文化交际研究的基本目的有以下三点:①培养人们对不同的文化持积极理解的态度。语言习惯、社会文化、风土人情、宗教信仰、教育背景的不同造成了文化的多样性,在跨文化交际过程中,我们要对不同文化持理解支持的态度,通过发现对方的不同点,反过来加深对我们自身文化的理解,从而做到客观地把握各自的文化特性。也就是说在发现差异的过程中,也要注意不可忽视大量的共同之处。②培养跨文化接触时的适应能力。初次与不同的文化接触时,往往会受到文化冲击,从而产生某种不适应。要使交际得以继续下去,必须设法减缓冲击,提高适应能力。③培养跨文化交际的技能。随着对外开放的进一步扩大,走出国门或留在国内参与跨 文化交际的人越来越多,他们都需要学习、掌握与不同文化背景的人打交道时的实际技能。
2.2跨文化交际能力的培养
随着全球化进程的不断加快,高科技的发展,交通通讯设施的不断完善,世界各国政治、经济、文化交流日益频繁,因此,文化差异所造成的矛盾便渐渐凸显。而初等教育时期对于英语的学习往往只停留在简单的语法和词汇方面,在高校外语教学中,则应更加注重对学生交际能力的培养,以便适应社会发展的进程。著名跨文化学家ruben认为实现有效交际的跨文化交际能力理应包括七个因素,它们分别是: 1)向对方表示尊敬和对其持积极态度的能力;2)采取描述性、非评价性和非判断性态度; 3)最大限度了解对方个性的能力;4)移情能力;5)应付不同情境的灵活机动能力; 6)轮流交谈的相互交往能力; 7)能容忍新的和含糊不清的情景,并能从容不迫对其作出反应的能力
以上七个方面完整的阐述了在跨文化交际中,外语习得者所应具备的能力,也正是高校外语教学中,教师对于学生的培养方向。为使学生具有以上七种能力,教师应从以下几方面入手:
①教学中应将词与词的文化内涵相结合。在传统的外语教学过程中,教师往往只向学生教授词汇的表层意义,对于词汇的文化意义并没有加以深入的解释说明。如dragon一词,在中国传统文化中,龙是吉祥、高贵的象征,而在西方社会则是邪恶的化身,因此,在词汇的教学中,教师应向学生传授词的文化内涵以免造成沟通的障碍。
②教学中应注意不同文化下世界观、价值观的不同。在跨文化交际过程中,对于隐藏在文化深层里的世界观、价值观是回避不了的,人们恰恰是通过了解世界观、价值观的不同 ,来加深对跨文化交际的理解。在教学过程中,教师应注重将其他文化的世界观、价值观有意识的传达给学生,从而培养学生跨文化沟通的能力。
③教学中介绍英语的交际习惯和行为方式。文化制约着人们的语言行为,在教学过程中,教师应注重介绍目的语国家的交际习惯和行为方式,让学生了解差异并以本族人的观点去理解目的语文化,使他们具备进行得体而有效的跨文化交际的能力。
④教学中注重非言语交际的运用。samovar(2000)等人将非言语交际定义为“在交际的环境中人为的和环境产生的对于传播者或受传者含有潜在信息的所有的刺激”, 因此它包括了言语行为之外的一切由人为的或由环境所产生的刺激,如:表情、手势、身势、触摸、界域、服饰、副语言、时间、场景等,在跨文化交际中,非言语交际往往也决定着交际的成败。
2.3跨文化交际的运用
语言最根本的作用即为交际,在跨文化交际过程中,我们必须要注意到两种不同文化的差异性。英国人见面喜欢以天气、地理环境、爱好等为话题,而将年龄、婚姻、收入作为禁忌话题,这都是我们在跨文化交际中应当注意的。此外,对于俚语、成语的学习也不可小视,在交际过程中
,对于俚语的误解往往会造成交际的失败,因此,有效而得体的运用适当的语言才能达到不同文化间沟通与交流的目的。
3文化教学的目的、意义
3.1文化教学的目的
在外语教学中,文化教学扮演着很重要的角色,因为外语教学的最终目的是让学生具备交际的能力,培养学生用外语进行跨文化交际的能力。在外语教学中,教师应将文化教学融入到课程体系中,使语言学习者能够将目的语文化与本族文化进行融会贯通,从而实现有效地跨文化交际。然而文化教学不能仅仅局限于课本,单纯片面的传授文化知识,应该设立模拟场景,让学生真正的身临其境,感受目的语文化,从而迅速提高跨文化交际交际能力。
此外,高等教育的文化教学往往只传授于外语专业的学生,且外教也只教授外语专业学生,对于公外的学生来讲,英美社会与文化的选修课资源不足,与外教交流机会少,这都造成文化教学难以在大学外语教学中得到普及。
对于外语专业学生,从其课程体系中我们可以很明显的看到,文学方面课程所占比例要远远大于社会文化,并且,社会文化教学也只是注重历史、地理、国家机构、文学艺术以及影响理解文学作品的背景知识,从这个层面上来看,大学外语专业教学的文化教学是为文学服务,而不是让学生具备应用的能力。外语专业教师对于文化的理解往往也停留在初级层面,实践与应用机会少,致使学生在与教师沟通的过程中只是简单的学习到了语言的基本技能,缺乏实际跨文化沟通的能力。外籍教师的配置数量过少,达不到让每名学生都得到锻炼的既定教学目标,并且,外教的授课内容通常也只注重于口语的锻炼,俚语的传授,文化教学少之又少,只在沟通出现问题时才进行讲解,不能够尽早预见问题,迅速提高学生跨文化交际的能力。
外语教学的主要目的是培养学生进行跨文化交际的能力,因此,在外语教学中将文化教学融入到语言教学中,使学生能够融会贯通目的语文化与本族文化,从而实现有效的跨文化交际,是文化教学的目的所在。
3.2文化教学的意义
文化教学应该贯穿于语言教学的每个阶段,既然语言教学的最终目的是让学生具备语用的能力,那么就必定要涉及文化教学。从学生学习的历程中,我们不难以看出,在外语学习的初级乃至高级阶段,教师都没有将文化教学完整的纳入到课程体系之内,在进行跨文化沟通过程中,学生实际应用能力差,往往不能准确地表达出自己的想法,滥用禁忌语,大谈特谈目的语国家的敏感话题,这都造成了对方的误解,因此,从学生学习外语的初级阶段,教学就应广泛涉及文化教学,使学生从最开始就兼备语言能力与交际能力。
然而,文化教学不能只是表面功夫,如果只让学生死记硬背一些文化事实,就会造成学生不知变通,因循守旧的后果。在教学过程中,尽量创造一些目的语国家的场景,使学生身临其境,模拟进行跨文化交际行为,以不变应万变,从而提高其实际应用的能力。
归根结底,文化教学的正真内涵是让学生真正的掌握跨文化交际的原理和技巧,并将其正确的应用到实践中去,从而达到得心应手地进行跨文化交际的目的。
结论:本文从理论角度介绍了跨文化交际的定义、目的,并提出如何培养学生的跨文化交际能力,同时,在全球化进程日益加快的今天,学生跨文化交际能力的培养显得尤为重要,然而,传统的外语授课过程中往往只重用语言技能而忽视了语用与文化教学,因此,作者认为,文化教学应贯穿于整个外国语言教学的体系之内,以达到培养学生交际与应用的能力的目的,而如何有效并迅速的将文化与语言教学完美融合并得以普及是目前高等教育中外语教学需要长期探索的一个主要方面。
参考文献:
[1]严明 .大学英语跨文化交际能力培养研 究——黑龙江大学大学英语跨文化交际能力培养体系探索.
[2]魏泓.跨文化交际与语言文化多样性的关系探析.上海海事职业技术学院.
[3]birdwhistell,ray.kinesics and context. philadelphia: university of pennsylvania press.1970.
[3]岑建军.难在今日功在千秋[j]. 教学与教材研究,1997,(2).
[4]陈祖福.迎接时代的挑战,更新教育思想和观念[j].教学与教材研究,1997,(3).
[5]彭丹逵 .试论跨文化交际能力的培养[j] . 电大英语快讯,2006,(1).
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摘 要
近年来，随着我国改革开放的发展和我国与国际间的经济、科技、文化交流日益频繁，人们越来越重视外国文化问题。同时，我们也逐渐认识到了了解外国文化在对外交往中的重要性。在教育领域中，外语教学也渐渐重视对学生交际能力的培养。然而，对许多老师而言，文化教学还是一个较新的概念，从跨文化角度对英语教学进行研究探讨在目前还是个新领域。我们必须认识到交际能力的培养是外语教学的主要目标，培养学生跨文化交际的技能是中学外语教学要达到的一个目标。文化教学在中学英语教学中的重要性不可忽视，英语学习者不了解英语国家的文化，就无法获得交际能力。因此在中学英语口语教学中应该目标明确地，循序渐进地，方法得当地导入文化教学，使英语学习者在学习语言和知识的同时受到文化的熏陶，在跨文化交际中游刃有余。
关键词： 跨文化交际；文化教学；中学英语口语教学
ABSTRACT
Since last century, because of reforming and opening policy, many people, especially young people go abroad to get a better job or get further education and so on. Besides, many foreigners are curious about our country. Consequently, people come to realize that if we know little about cross-cultural communication, there will be many conflicts. Some experts suggest that today’s English teaching should emphasize intercultural communication. Learners ought to know not only grammar or words, but should learn cultural knowledge. If not, they will meet many difficulties while they communicate with foreigners. Therefore, it is important to introduce this kind of knowledge while teaching. We can’t neglect the importance of culture teaching in middle school foreign language teaching, English teachers should integrate culture into ELF teaching gradually and appropriately. Thus the students may have a better understanding of the target language, and they may communicate freely and effectively in cross-culture communication.
Keywords：Cross-cultural communication; Cultural teaching; middle school ELF oral teaching
Contents
1. Introduction 2
2. the concept of intercultural communication 3
2.1 Literature review 3
2.2 Definition of intercultural communication 4
3.A survey based on classroom observations 7
3.1 The analysis of interviews 7
3.2 The analysis of a questionnaire 7
3.2.1 Data analysis on the questionnaire (1) 9
3.2.2 Data analysis on the questionnaire (2) 10
3.2.3 Data analysis on culture curriculum 12
4. Ways of improving cross-cultural communication competence in middle school oral teaching 15
4.1 The necessity of develop cross-cultural communication competence 17
4.2 Some strategies for improving cross-cultural communication competence in the ELF oral learning in chinese middle school 17
4.2.1 Some strategies to learners 17
4.2.2 Some strategies to teachers 19
5. Conclusion 25
Acknowledgements 26
References 27
AppendixⅠ 28
1． Introduction
Language is just like a mirror that reflects its national culture. Sociologists and anthropologists believe that culture comprises all products of human activity, including fields of literature, art, music, architecture, and scientific as well as aspects of customs, life-style, code of conduct, worldly wisdom and social organization, etc. Languages are generally accepted words and rules drawn from speech. Language is the carrier of culture and culture is the content of language20.
Worldwide interest in intercultural communication grows out of two assumptions. First, we live in an age when changes in technology, travel, economy, and political systems, immigration patterns, especially the emergence of Internet, have created a world in which we increasingly interact with people from different cultures. And whether we like it or not, these interactions will continue to grow in both frequently and intensely. Second, people now know that the influence of culture affects communication in a subtle way. Our culture perceptions and experiences help determine how the world looks and how we interact in the world.
However, as we look back to see the situation in China’s high schools. We see that, for several decades, language teachers have not been able to pay attention to the role of culture knowledge in language oral teaching. Nowadays, in the ELF oral teaching, especially in middle school, teachers pay much attention to vocabulary.
As Chinese culture is not the same as that of English-speaking countries, the rules for using Chinese are, in some respects, different from those using English. There is especially good evidence that Chinese students may transfer their mother tongue references of language used to their English performance and fail to communicate effectively[1]24. Misunderstanding caused by cross-cultural communication should break down and much attention should be paid to them in English language t eaching.
So in middle school ELF oral teaching, teachers must not only improve students’ language level, but also pay attention to cultivating students’ abilities of intercultural communication.
2. The concept of intercultural communication
2.1 Literature review
More and more common practice of intercultural communication promotes the emergence of the concept of intercultural communicative competence. It is a challenging issue for language study and language teaching.
In 1965, Chomsky put forward the concept of linguistic competence and linguistic performance. Later, it was challenged by Campbell and Wales (1970) and Hymes (1972). Hymes (1972) argues that the appropriateness of language is the core of communicative competence, and he sees communicative competence as part of cultural competence. Canale and Swain (1980) put forward a more complex framework, and Canale (1983) summarized communicative competence in the way that it includes four component parts --- grammatical, sociolinguistic, discourse, and strategic. Canale’s conclusion in fact suggests that all aspects of language using are determined by culture. The continuous theoretical research of communicative competence has paved the way for the development of language teaching in which cultural factors are considered more and more important.
In 1975, the first textbook on intercultural communication “An Introduction to Intercultural Communication” (Conden & Yousef ) was published, and many other books followed it. The research on intercultural communication has developed quickly, and has exerted incredible influence on language and cultural teaching.
Traditional language teaching divides language techniques into listening, speaking, reading and writing. Deman (1987) applied the theories of intercultural communication to language and cultural teaching, and viewed cultural teaching as the fifth dimension of language teaching. Seelye published a book named “Teaching Culture: Strategies for Foreign Language Education” in 1984. Gumperz (1982) conducted investigations on the “discourse strategy” of the communicators who had a non-English cultural background and who spoke English as the second language. He revealed that those communicators’ assumptions of the world that had been formed in their native cultural context would exert great influence on intercultural communication. This, in turn, has stimulated a trend in language teaching that sees culture as discourse (Widdowson, 1984; Mclarthy, 1991; Kramsch, 1993; Candlin,1994; Hanks,1996). So since 1990, process-centered and task-oriented teaching mode has been widely adopted in the west.
Besides, American applied linguist G. Robinson (1985) put forward an important concept that through language and cultural teaching learners would gain “Cultural Versatility”. That is to say, through learning culture, learners would change internally. This viewpoint is quite significant.
Prof. Michael Bryam’s research is also strikingly notable. He holds that foreign language education includes four parts: language learning, language understanding, cultural understanding, and cultural experience.
2.2 Definition of intercultural communication
“Intercultural Communication” can hence be defined as the interpersonal interaction between members of different groups, which differ form each other in respect of the knowledge shared by their members and in respect of their linguistic forms of symbolic behavior. In this Concepts of intercultural and Combines the Concepts of intercultural and communication, It also describes the problems and pitfalls of misunderstanding and the skills and competence required for successfully understanding member of other culture.
Thanks to Edward T. Hall who is regarded as the founder of intercultural communication, a new brink knowledge, intercultural communication, has been becoming more and more widespread in the whole world ever since the publication of his great work The Silence Language. Intercultural communication is a symbolic, interpretive, transactional, contextual processing tool with which people from different cultures create shared meaning[2]115. Intercultural communication occurs whenever a message produced in one culture must be processed in another culture. It can best be understood as cultural variance in the perception of social objects and events. The barriers to communication caused by this perceptual variance can best be lowered by a knowledge and understanding of cultural factors that are subject to variance, coupled with an honest and sincere desire to communicate successfully across cultural boundaries.
Intercultural communication refers to communication between persons who have d ifferent cultural beliefs, values, or ways of behaving.
2.2.1 Cultural and cross-cultural communication
Cultural awareness in language learning is the ability to be aware of cultural relativity following reading, writing, listening and speaking. As Claire kramsch points out…[12]
If…language is seen as social practice, culture becomes the very core of language teaching, cultural awareness must then be viewed as enabling language proficiency…
Language itself is defined by culture. Language competent cannot be achieved without a good understanding of culture that shapes it, especially in foreign language learning. It is not only therefore essential to have cultural awareness, but also have cross-cultural communication awareness, such as the understanding of the relationship between target culture and native culture.
2.2.2 Culture teaching and ELF oral teaching in middle school
The interrelationship between culture teaching and language teaching has been explored in depth by Michael Byram. The basis of Byram’s position is that it views language as a cultural phenomenon, embodying the values and meanings particular to a specific society, referring to the traditions and artifacts of that society and signaling its people’s sense of themselves—their cultural identity: “to teach foreign culture is to introduce learners to new competences and to allow them to reflect upon their own culture and cultural competence[2].” It is assumed by others that language could somehow stand alone and be taught as a value-free symbolic system. But the social nature of language works oppositely when separating it from its original culture, especially when appearing in overseas contexts, where the learners’ contact with the culture is largely confined to the foreign language classroom.
Traditional foreign language teaching does not pay much attention to cultural factor. It focuses mainly on the vocabulary and structure of the language. But plenty of facts prove that language is not only a symbol, a system, which put forward by pure linguistic theory scholar, but also a social practice. Therefore successful foreign language teaching must help the student master the knowledge of culture rules, in addition to use them in particular situation. Every nation has its unique culture pattern and language is the carrier of culture. For instance, Asians emphasize the importance of orderly society whereas Americans emphasize the importance of personal freedom and individual rights. For effective and appropriate communication, learners in middle school must be familiar with the differences in the foreign culture which they are learning and take according language behaviors.
3. A survey based on classroom observations
Survey date: 25/02/2009
Survey instrument: interview and questionnaire.
Subjects: students of Ning Bo Chai Qiao middle school. 30 students are interviewed, 98 students (30 interviewed students and another 68 students) participate in questionnaire. All the 98 copies of questionnaire are valid.
The objective of this survey is to investigate:
1) Students’ attitudes towards cross-cultural communication in the ELF oral learning
2) Current situation of students’ information input.
3.1 The analysis of interviews
Thirty English learners are interviewed and are invited to answer only one question: what is a competent language learner like in your eyes? The responses tend to fall into three categories:
(1) Twenty five interviewees think that he or she is good at English listening, speaking, reading and writing abilities, especially at speaking and listening;
(2) Ten of them think he or she is familiar with foreign culture and is a successful cross-cultural communicator.
(3) Five of them think a good command of native language is necessary.
In order to describe more directly, the results of interviews are put into a table (Table.1).
Table1. Results of the Interview
Positive attitudes Percentage
Language proficiency learning(reading, writing, speaking and listening) 83.33％ (25/30)
Accumulation of culture 33.33％ (10/30)
Mother tongue proficiency 16.67％ ( 5/30)
These students’ responses reveal the following information:
Firstly, these students still see the four basic skills (speaking, listening, reading and writing) as their main study objective. Secondly, cross-cultural communication competence has already been realized by language learners, but this group is small compared to the whole. Thirdly, the importance of mother tongue competence has only been seen by a few interviewees.
According to this interview, most interviewees have realized the importance of language proficiency in language learning, but the point is why only one third of the interviewees have realized the importance and necessity of cross-cultural communicative competence since which are discussed so warmly in present language teachin g world? Do they hold a negative view on it or do they just have not yet obtained the awareness consciously?
3.2 The analysis of a questionnaire
The English learning questionnaire consists of nine closed-ended questions (see Appendix), For instance, “you have the interest and passion in English and language learning”, and the answers falls into four types:
1. Strongly Agree (SA) 2. Agree (A) 3. Disagree (D) 4. Strongly Disagree (SD)
According to the research content, the analysis of questionnaire is divided into two parts. The first five are put in Table 2 and the rest four questions are put in Table 4.
3.2.1 Data analysis on the questionnaire (1)
This part of analysis involves data analysis on questions 1-5 in the questionnaire and a comparison between the responds of the interviews and the questionnaire.
3.2.1.1 Data analysis on the questionnaire (1)
Table2. Results of Questions 1-5 in Questionnaire
SA A D SD
1) The cultivation of English skills(reading, writing, speaking and listening) is the foundation of the language learning 60.29％ 31.65％ 2.04％ 6.02％
2) Reading English novels everyday is necessary 17.35％ 69.39％ 13.26％ 0.00％
3) It is important to acquire a good knowledge of native language in the ELF oral learning 44.90％ 53.06％ 2.04％ 0.00％
4) The accumulation of language and cross-cultural communication competence are of equal importance 50.00％ 48.98％ 1.02％ 0.00％
5) It is necessary to read materials regularly about politics, economy, culture, and so on 39.80％ 60.20％ 0.00％ 0.00％
Questions 1-5 (see appendix) indicate a clear picture of students’ attitudes towards language proficiency learning, native language learning, and accumulation on cross-cultural communication competence, literature, and politics and so on. On the importance of the cultivation of reading, speaking, listening and writing in language learning, 91.94% (60.29% SA+31.65% A) of English majors agree and of which 64.29% strongly agree. On daily English novels reading, a total of 86.74% (17.35% SA+69.39% A) consider it necessary. On the necessity a good command of native language, 97.96% (44.90% SA+53.06% A) of English learners agree. On the relation of native language learning and foreign language learning, 98.98% (50.0% SA+48.98% A) believe that these two are of equal importance. Finally, on a regularly reading of politics, economy, and culture, all (39.80% SA+60.20% A) the students hold a supportive attitude.
3.2.1.2 Comparison between the interviews and the questionnaire
With regards to the similarities of the contents examined, it seems necessary to
have a comparison between the responds of the interviews and the questionnaire.
Table3. Comparison between the Interviews and the Questionnaire
Positive attitudes (SA+A) Interview
(open-ended) Questionnaire
(close-ended)
Foreign Language proficiency learning(reading, writing, speaking and listening) 83.88％ 91.94％
Accumulation of intercultural communication competence 33.33％ 98.98％
Mother tongue proficiency 16.67％ 97.96％
From the table above, the comparison is very clear that, towards the same research content, interviewees’ responds vary when they are faced with different types of questions. The gap is especially seen on the accumulation of cross-cultural communication competence and native language proficiency. Compared with open-ended question in the interview, interviewees tend to hold a more supportive view on closed-ended questions in the questionnaire. In other word, most English learners subjectively admit the importance of the accumulation of cross-cultural communication competence and native language proficiency, but the point is, not all of them have already obtained the awareness. However, two questions have been proposed from the comparison: (1) Why English learners have not obtained the cross-cultural awareness which should be tied up with the ELF oral learning? (2) Is that because they subjectively lack learning motivation or objectively, they lack timely and efficiently teachers’ cultural guidance?
3.2.2 Data analysis on the questionnaire (2)
This part of questionnaire (table4 in next page) mainly focuses on students’ attitudes towards learning motivation as well as classroom learning. Before the analysis is taken, a brief introduction on motivation can help to have a better understanding on the analysis.
1) Integrative motivation
Motivation has been identified as the learners’ orientation with regards to the goal of learning foreign language69. This form of motivation is known as integrative motivation.
.2) Instrumental Motivation
In contrast to integrative motivation is the form of motivation which is known as in strumental motivation. This is generally characterized by the desire to obtain something practical from the study of foreign language[9]125. With instrumental motivation, the purpose of study is more practical, such as meeting the requirements for college graduation, applying for a job and achieving higher social status.
Table4. Results of Questions 6-9 in Questionnaire
SA A D SD
6) Your have the interest and passion in the ELF oral learning 14.29％ 61.22％ 21.43％ 3.06％
7) You would prefer to get an English-related job after the graduation 21.43％ 66.33％ 11.22％ 1.02％
8) The present classroom teaching can cultivate your learning abilities and improve your cross-cultural skills 2.04％ 7.14％ 71.43％ 19.39％
9) You hope to have English class in various forms such as discussion, presentation, debate, performance and so on. 25.51％ 63.27％ 9.18％ 2.04％
As is shown in the table (results of questions 6 and 7), 75.51% (14.29%SA+61.22%A) of English learners have the interest and passion in language learning, and 87.76% (21.43%SA+66.33%A) of them would like to get an English related job in the future. According to the introduction of motivation, the answers to those two questions (questions 6 and 7) can be taken as the representation of integrative and instrumental motivation respectively. Therefore, a conclusion can be made that, most students subjectively want to make a living by using their language competence.
In order to check the condition of students’ cultural information input, questions 8 and 9 are designed and analyzed. 89.82% (71.43%D+19.39SD) of English learners do not think that the present classroom teaching can cultivate their learning abilities and improve their cross-cultural communication competence, whereas a total of 88.78% (25.51%SA+63.27%A) hope to have English class in various forms such as discussion, presentation, debate, performance and so on. It can be found that most English majors are not satisfied with the current classroom teaching. They hope to enjoy a more interactive and communicative teaching style. The traditional text-based grammatical and linguistic teaching could not meet the needs of the cultivation of communicative competence to some extent. What’s more important is that students are supposed to have a consciously as well as unconsciously cultural awareness promote by language teachers.
3.2.3 Data analysis on culture curriculum
It is shown from the result of question 8 in the table above (table 4) that present foreign language teaching has not provided a satisfactory fruit on cultural awareness cultivation. A question should be taken into consideration, that is, how can cross-culture awareness be expressed in the foreign language curriculum, with the purpose to cultivate language learners’ cultural awareness and communication insight into the target civilization? For a long time, this has been attempted by introducing the geographical environment and historical or political development of the foreign culture, its institutions and customs, its literary achievements, and even everyday life of its people. Take English learners in Ning Bo Chai Qiao middle school as an example, their cultural input has largely come from courses such as Extensive Reading, Communication between Cultures, American Literature, and An Outline Introduction to Britain and America, and so on. Following is a basic analysis on the four courses.
Table5. Courses Information
Course Duration Teacherˊs background
Extensive Reading first 4 terms Chinese
Communication between cultures the 7th term New Zealander
American literature the 7th term Chinese
An Outline Introduction to Britain and America the 7th term Canadian
Extensive Reading was taught by a Chinese teacher during the first four terms, and the teaching contents mainly focus on western culture, economy, politic, education and so on. After two years study, it helps students build up a general view on western civilization. Communication between Cultures is taught by a English-speaking teacher from New Zealand, the teaching content seems “boring and meaningless” said the majority of students, the teacher read the chapters from the book to the class instead of giving practical cross-cultural communication analysis. So for most students, they did not learn as much as they expected from this course. American literature was taught by a Chinese teacher, and the teaching contents include background information introduction and literacy reading. An Outline Introduction to Britain and America was taught by a Canadian teacher who has a good experience on both British and American cultures. In this course, students are introduced to a comparison of the British and American culture.
From what have been introduced above, it can be seen that although there are four courses and an 28-month course duration, most of what students have taken is an education of “cultural background knowledge” on Chinese or English rather t han practical cross-cultural communication stimulation such as comparisons or contradictions between the target and native culture. To some extent, it revels why most English students have not got a conscious awareness in cultural or cross-cultural communication competence.
Through comparisons between the interview and the questionnaire, it can be seen that students hold positive attitudes on develop the competence of intercultural communication, but for some reasons, not so many have already obtained conscious cross-cultural awareness. Through further analysis of curriculum on cultural teaching, it reveals that present cultural teaching in ELF oral teaching shows the weakness in practical, sufficient and conscious cultural input to help build up language learner’s cross-cultural awareness. Moreover, the current teaching is also expected to be more communicative and interactive. Thus, following on are the possible ways to promote the competence of intercultural communication,
4.1 The necessity of develop cross-cultural communication competence
Firstly, it is vital for language teachers to help language learners develop their cross-cultural communication competence. If the final purpose of intercultural communication competence cultivation is to help students to acquire cross-cultural communication competence, then what cross-cultural communication competence is? According to Kramsch’s opinion, cross-cultural awareness is not really a skill, but a collection of skills and attitudes known as a competence[12].
Secondly, it is necessary to make clear what cross-cultural awareness skills students are supposed to acquire. It has been suggested that cross-cultural awareness consists of having four different perspectives on communication with a different culture. Cross-cultural competent students should be able to:
----look at their own culture from the point of view of their own culture (for example, having a good understanding and awareness of their own culture)
----Be aware of how their culture is seen from outside, by other countries or cultures
----understand or see the target culture from its own perspective (for example, understanding and being aware of what other people think of their own culture)
----Be aware of how they see the target culture
4.1.1 The request of the development of Internationalization
Lin Dajin in the “cross-cultural communication study, ” pointed out that culture can be defined as “ the integrated feature that a nation is distinct from another nation. ” Cultural differences are the barriers of cross-cultural communication. The modernization process accelerated the circulation of spiritual and material products, and brought all nationalities into a common “global village”, cross-cultural communication became an integral part of national life. If people do not understand the cultural convention in the USA or Britain, and use the way of China to treat foreigners, then it will create a lot of jokes, and even hurt each other's feelings, self-esteem and cause misunderstanding. Thus, to overcome the cultural differences caused by communication barriers has become a common problem faced by the entire world.
4.1.2 It is imperative to understand the cultural background knowledge
Understanding cultural knowledge is the key to language learning. “One can not really learn the language, and teach language well unless one knows the patterns and norms of culture and cultural background[14]224. ” Without a specific cultural background, language is non-existent. If we don’t know the culture of target language, we would find it is difficult to understand the meaning of certain words. For example, “Thanksgiving”, “Sandwich” has been brought about in a specific social and historical circumstance, it is not enough merely to know the meaning of the surface of these words. Another example is: “You are, indeed, a lucky dog”, the literal translation is “you are a lucky dog. ” This is a satiric sentence in China, because, in Chinese views, “dog” is an expression when people used to refer generally to dislike someone. While in English, it can mean, “You are a lucky man. ” In Western society, “dog” is a family member, and they are harmonious coexisting with people “Dog” here refers to people instead of satirizing others, but a very intimate expression.
4.1.3 Cultural knowledge teaching is the objective of language teaching
The main objective of language teaching is to train and develop students’ interpersonal skills. And cultural knowledge teaching can increase the ability of cross-cultural communication, which is the important content to achieve goals of language teaching. For example, in American society, praise and compliments language that flatter mainly a personal appearance, new things, personal property, and individuals in a ce rtain area are commonly used as the introduction to a conversation. This is different from Chinese. Thus, different nations have different cultural environments, different living habits and different languages behavior expressions. And as a language learner, if not ideologically “physically entering their social linguistic environment” will be difficult to achieve the goal of language learning，not to say that language teaching objectives will be accomplished.
4.2 Some strategies for improving cross-cultural communication competence in the ELF oral learning in Chinese middle school
After the survey research and data analysis, now we have a clear idea of the common reasons that triggered the weakness of the cross-cultural communication in middle school ELF oral teaching. However, we do not have a clarity solution about this situations. Therefore, some strategies were listed here to help learners with their language learning.
4.2.1 Some strategies to learners
4.2.1.1Raising culture awareness
Culture awareness is the term we have used to describe sensitivity to the impact of culturally---induced behavior on language use and communication. It including two qualities: one is awareness of one’s own culture, the other is awareness of the culture[7]15.
Unfortunately, in China, cross-cultural communication errors can be found from time to time. In the ELF oral learning, culture factor needs to be taken seriously. To cultivate students’ intercultural communication we need first to arouse their cultural awareness. Because of different cultural background, life experience, profession, sex, education, even age, character, people may have different modes of interaction. People learn to think, feel, behave and strive for what their culture considers proper. These means there might not be the same as what is intended by the speaker. If we are aware of this, we can avoid ethnocentricity, and can have better communication with people all over the world.
Speakers of a foreign language often have the experience of making careless mistakes which may cause get angry, may be embarrassing and may arouse hostility from native speaker. Often such mistakes occur even though the application of the linguistic rules of grammar, vocabulary or pronunciation is correct. These mistakes are culture errors but occur because of not knowing or choosing the appropriate style, and manner to use for effective communication.
4.2.1.2 The development of sensitiveness to culture differences
There are four stages in the development of the sensitiveness to culture differences. The first, one can make out the obvious, superficial culture characteristics. In other word, he will find them interesting and exotic. The second, one can judge the delicate meaningful cultural characteristics that are quite different from his own. Usually he will feel them incredible or hard to accept .The third, one can accept the cultural characteristics after rational analysis. The fourth, one can be in the other peoples’ shoes and appreciate the cultural characteristics. In other words, the first three stage can be understood, and the fourth empathy.
4.2.1.3 The development of empathy
In order to communication effectively, you need a deep degree of empathy, that is to be able to understand the other person’s affective and cognitive states. Empathy differs from sympathy in that it does not include pity or approval. And focuses on the feelings of others, not our own[12]114. Empathy involves relativism and flexibility, which knowledge alone cannot consist. Teachers can create good classroom environment where students tolerate and appreciate different norms by bringing up students’ empathy. In China, we always emphasize collectivism instead of individualism. But in English class, we advocate differences, to encourage students to understand each other.
To facilitate empathy, we can take these measures:
(1) Subjects like history, anthropology, and sociology should be introduced into
the curriculum. Through these subjects, the students can not only acquaint themselves with the examples of foreign culture, but also master some concepts and principles concerning with culture.
(2) The students should be encouraged to read broadly in Chinese middle
school, both fiction non-fiction, literal or philosophical. Including proverbs, broad reading can be a student better understand and communicate with other cultures. Only through broad reading can he know the taboos, values, beliefs and religion of another culture, only through broad reading can be truly come to realize why privacy is so important and that individualism is so cherished.
(3) The students should he sent abroad for further study if possible. Thus they
can live with the natives for some time, no chance is better than the close contact. They can enjoy the new culture. By enhancing ICC, the intercultural communication of the learners can be carried out tactfully, acco rding to different context.
4.2.2 Some strategies to teachers
Language teachers are supposed to exert instructional strategies to help language learners promote their cross-cultural communication competence, that is, provide language learners with some useful ideals for presenting culture from its own perspective, for example, understanding and being aware of what people in target culture think of their own culture.Chinese teachers should take advantage of foreign teachers. Foreign teachers are rich in knowledge, idiomatic English, strong teaching culture context, full of wit and humor, longing to understand much more about Chinese culture. This attitude can have a great influence on students, and increased their desire of learning English well and knowing about the culture of English-speaking countries. Teachers can make full use of such rare chances and consult foreign teachers that they are according to the calendar, then all of the teachers and students can try their best to create all kinds of conditions to speak them imitatively —Action speak louder than words. Just as what we mentioned above, we have been aware of the importance of learning some cultural knowledge about the target language. It seems impossible and unnecessary for us to have a systematic study of target culture, which covers almost everything, in one’s whole lifetime. The difficulty shows that culture is ubiquitous, multidimensional and complex. A good solution to this problem might be to learn selectively those cultural factors that have great influence on intercultural communication, and that are closely related to the language. So on culture teaching we should follow these principles :( 1) interrelated. that is culture teaching must be interrelated with the content of the text. (2) Appropriate, that is culture teaching must be subjected to language teaching. (3) Practical, that is culture teaching must try to be “useful” for students in their communication. (4) Scientific, that is culture knowledge must be taught correctly, completely and objectively. (5) Flexible, that is culture teaching must be flexible according to the change of the world.
We must obey these five principles if we want to cultivate students’ abilities of cross-cultural communication. What we should teach in ELF classes is simply a foreign way of life related to the target language and teachers should avoid bringing their own cultural prejudice into class. The world is changing, so are the traditions and customs. The constant changes require us to improve our skills of intercultural communication by doing two things: understanding the cultural differences, especially the differences in the deep structure of different cultures, and becoming flexible in intercultural communication. There is a great tendency that one culture adopts the elements from another that are compatible with its own values and beliefs or that can be changed without causing major disruption.
4.2.2.1 Make full use of developing the interest of the competence of intercultural communication in the ELF oral learning in Chinese middle school
Intercultural communication is a big issue, which is not easy for both teachers and students to understand and realize. For successful cultural teaching, we suggest doing the following:
(1) Teach culture differences. Teachers should directly address the similarities and peculiarities between the source culture and the target culture. This can be done through the comparison of the two cultures.
(2) Provide opportunities for students to use the language in situational conversations. While introducing the students play a real-life role and practice their everyday language use according to the varied situation.
(3) Induce students to read literal works, which are vivid and abundant material to understand the character, the psychological state, culture characteristics, convention, and social relationships. Reading newspaper is also the direct path.
(4) Be aware of your students development level, when selecting themes or concepts to present. At first, learning activities should be clear and specific in lower levels, gradually, becoming more complex than the level of the student increases. There are a variety of children’s fiction which presents concepts like similarities, differences and prejudice which can be used at lower levels. At upper levels fiction and biographies can be used to present the more complicated ideas. Try to connect the unfamiliar with the familiar, the known with the unknown.
(5) Use plenty of ways in both general learning tasks and in language learning tasks.
(6) Use varied methods to check the understanding level of the students.
(7) Be enthusiastic. As a teacher you need to be aware of the value of learning a second language in terms of its contribution to developing cultural aware and a range of other cognitive and vocational benefits. Your attitude will influence the attitudes of the child ren in the class and their parents.
Beside, Chinese teachers should take advantage of foreign teachers. Foreign teachers are rich in knowledge, idiomatic English, strong teaching culture context, full of wit and humor, longing to understand much more about Chinese culture. This attitude can have a great influence on students, and increased their desire of learning English well and knowing about the culture of English-speaking countries. Teachers can make full use of such rare chances and consult foreign teachers that they are according to the calendar, then all of the teachers and students can try their best to create all kinds of conditions to speak them imitatively —Action speak louder than words.
For example, we once tried to spend Christmas and Hallowmas with all foreign teachers together in our school .The students were very interested and active in the activities， and such experiences can have impressed them strongly and forever.
Teachers should encourage students to communicate with foreign teachers and some other foreigners in and out of school. Students and foreign teachers can have classes, play games and take part in many kinds of activities together. Communicating with foreigners can provide students with the real cultural context in which English is used actually and stimulate students to learn English well including knowing about foreign culture.
As the success of many activities depends on good organization and on the students knowing exactly what they are to do. A teacher is thus mainly an organizer, whose work is different from administrator of a school system. But the teacher, like any other organizer, works primarily with people, and his task and responsibility are to create situations in which people can do their best and achieve their best.
Since teachers are key roles during culture teaching, they must play a positive role in helping the students to develop intercultural communicative competence and increase the students’ chances to succeeding in both language learning. It is not an expendable skill tacked on to the teaching of speaking, listening, writing and reading. It is always in some background. Lack of intercultural competence will limit the students’ ability to make sense of the world around them, and lead to failure in using English for communication across-culture.
4.2.2.2 Make full use of pictures, films, TV, computers and other audio-visual aids to make the teaching lively and interesting. Explore to the full the opportunities for students with the target culture information.
(1) Plays in and out of class
It is proved that plays in and out of class are probably the most efficient ways of language teaching.
The role of plays and dramas manifests itself when learners perform by themselves. Mini-dramas acted by students expose them to a “process of self-confrontation” with the target cultural communicates. The learners can act out mini-dramas written by them, which show misinterpretation of something that happens in the target cultural context. The cause of the problem is usually clarified in the final scene. Cultural similarities and differences will be analyzed by way of follow-up discussion.
In the listening book of Senior English book3 unit24, the material involves “finding a job”, English teachers can extract one or two advertisements from the magazine for students. Teachers can ask the students to divide into two groups, one group act as recruiters, and the other group act as applicants. By looking at the advertisements, appointing to interview, using some simple props, students can exchange views on working conditions, wages and other issues. Thus, students can understand the practical knowledge of Foreign Service work; the actors also can improve their abilities of practical language.
A short play can be broken down into sections. As learners learn (not memorize) one section, they move on to the next. By combining the sections, they have learned the play. The use of this technique enables different groups of learners to work on several short plays at the same time and leads to the creation of several shirt plays simultaneously.
Drama is a useful tool in cultural learning. A full semester’s work can be built around a drama project, or it can fill five or ten minutes at the beginning or end of a lesson. It encourages the learners to view the linguistic and cultural knowledge as a tool for communication rather than as an academic subject. It can bring life and vitality to the classroom.
(2) Classroom presentation
At the beginning of each lesson, teachers can hold a “cultural corner” sessions, with 5-10 minutes. Teachers or students can introduce one aspect of Western culture, such as famous events of foreign country in history, a prominent figure in the world, or some literary works. To accumulate the cultural knowledge for a long time, students’ cultural knowledge will naturally become broad and rich.
(3) Photo display
Use maps, photographs, and illustrations of the text to introduce relative cultural elements vividly. For instance, when we teach the States of Liberty which appears in the lesson 10 of junior English book3, at first we can display a wall chart of the Statue of Liberty in the United States in front of the classroom, then ask the students to identify it and then observe the Statue of Liberty carefully in the facial expressions, posture language, the hold-high arm and torch. And then teachers can introduce the following cultural background briefly: Batuoerdi, a French sculptor, builds U.S. Statue of Liberty. He takes his mother's face and his wife's body as models to manufacture it. The Goddess of Liberty not only has swallowed vicissitudes face, but also perseverance. The torch in her hand is a symbol of freedom shining all over the world. Then teachers can guide the students to make analysis of the understanding of American national spirit through the Statue of Liberty. Teachers also can allow the students to list their deepest impression in other countries or ethnic representation construction.
(4) Song appreciation
The important function of the songs is to express one’s wishes. Many lyrics and melody of songs are also full of rich cultural content. Students generally are interested in songs. If time is enough in the class, teachers can choose one or two representative English songs for students to appreciate or learn to sing. It is an effective method in the teaching of English cultural knowledge to analyze the content of the lyrics and music rhythm feelings. And then the students can accept the cultural baptism. For example, a song has a lyric like “Love is blue.”(Blue love). Then what representation is “blue” in English? It often expressed "frustration and anxiety". Teachers cited examples to analyze, and then asked students to appreciate this song, try to see if there are any new experiences.
(5) Foreign festivals on the campus
This activity is of great interest to young students. The celebration could take place in a class, a grade or the whole school with the help of the branch of the Youth League. All kinds of activities can be held in festivals, such as performance of foreign songs, dancing and dramas, holding costume parties, watching foreign films, attending lectures given by foreign experts and enjoying foreign food. By celebrating foreign festivals, learners will immerse in the target cultural context. Teachers are to give introduction on the origin and the conventional activities of the festival. A comparison of the similarities and differences between the foreign festivals and Chinese festivals can develop the learners’ cultural awareness.
(6) Using authentic materials
Obviously, the best way to learn foreign cultural background knowledge is to go to that country to stay there for a period of time. But we know that it is almost impossible to have such an opportunity, especially for our students. Therefore, it is practically necessary for the teachers to use authentic materials to teach culture.
Mass media, such as, film, novels and especially newspapers and magazines, is also considered as an insightful means for teaching culture, for they reflect people’s way of life in terms of variety contemporaneity and authenticity. Students in an ELF setting will spontaneously ask questions about puzzling aspects of society and life as reflected in the film or magazine. This material is by no means easy to interpret because there is so much central inference and it requires deep familiarity with and comprehensive exegeses of the culture in question. Therefore “all such material should be selected with an eye to the subculture diversity of the target community”.
5. Conclusion
Today, international cultural exchange is going on directly and indirectly, with its new scope, content, form and method unheard of before. To confine oneself to one’s own culture is to go against the times. Now, in our country, the open policy towards the rest of the world has become a fundamental policy. This policy has brought about much broader prospects for international cultural exchange. Therefore, overcoming cultural barriers has become more and more important. Only by surmounting the barriers can we get a high degree of cultural exchange, make use of good things from other cultures and build up our cultural and material wealth. This exchange will contribute to understanding and friendship among nations as well as development in science and culture.
In the practical teaching, the culture teaching should be presented as many detailed as possible in the teaching syllabus. The teaching materials should not be located only in the source culture and should be a constructive attempt to be explicit about intercultural behavior and communication, especially, in view of the limited language available at this level. Besides, in the classroom ELF oral teaching, teachers are expected to use a variety of teaching methods that are suitable to students’ level. In intercultural communication settings, Chinese learners in culture instruction should keep an open mind: we should try to avoid the prejudiced culture stereotypes over the other cultures and our own. Especially, we should put higher focus on the learning of our own Chinese culture. Another key point is becoming awareness of our own culture bottom lines. We must learn what our own culture line is ― the values where we are can negotiate, but we cannot compromise. We can allow others to be different, and respect their differences as they respect ours.
Though the culture teaching is a very complicated and difficult part to deal with, the educators and teachers involved in language education should make great efforts to carry out this part thoroughly. This determines much whether the effective cross-cultural communication can be preceded smoothly between China and the world.
Acknowledgements
My initial thanks go to my supervisor Meng Dong, who patiently supervised my dissertation and was at times very willing to offer me illuminating advice or suggestions. Without her help, I could not have finished this dissertation.
I am also indebted to other teachers and my classmates who have not only offered me their warm encouragements but also shared with me their ideas and books. They are Han Xiaoya, Shen Yin and many others.
And I also appreciate Li Neng, who offer me great help during the time I was in the practice in Ning Bo Chai Qiao middle school. Without her help, I could not finish my survey in this paper.
The remaining weakness and possible errors of the dissertation are entirely my own.
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AppendixⅠ
*Questionnaire:
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
1) The cultivation of English skills(reading, writing, speaking and listening) is the foundation of the language learning
2) Reading English novels everyday is necessary
3) It is important to acquire a good knowledge of native language in foreign language learning
4) The accumulation of language and cross-cultural competence are of equal importance
5) It is necessary to read materials regularly about politics, economy, culture, and so on
6) You have the interest and passion in the ELF oral learning
7) You would prefer to get an English-related job after graduation
8) The present classroom teaching can cultivate your learning ability and improve your cross-cultural skills
9) You hope to have English class in various forms such as discussion, presentation, debate, performance and so on.
诚 信 承 诺
我谨在此承诺：本人所写的毕业论文《论中学英语口语教学中跨文化交际能力的培养》均系本人独立完成，没有抄袭行为，凡涉及其他作者的观点和材料，均作了注释，若有不实，后果由本人承担。
承诺人（签名）：
