发布时间：2023-03-23 15:12:55
序言：写作是分享个人见解和探索未知领域的桥梁，我们为您精选了8篇的文化翻译论文样本，期待这些样本能够为您提供丰富的参考和启发，请尽情阅读。
虽然旅游资料的翻译应该以读者的文化为主，以译文为重，但是外国游客感兴趣的是旅游资料中与其不同的文化，因此在翻译的过程中还应在读者接受范围内最大程度保留原文的文化信息。如果译文不作任何改变照直翻译，不但令外国游客不知何意，而且还会失去阅读的兴趣，达不到翻译的目的。那么译者应适当地增减文化点来让读者更容易接受，所以采用删减、释义、类比、改译等方法。
典故是旅游资料中一种常见的文化现象，出自历史事件、寓言、神话、传说、谚语、某些作品等。其特点是源远流长，富含较浓厚的民族色彩，因结构固定，义在言外，已失去指称意义，只有语用意义，在直译以后读者无法理解典故含义时，要对典故作适当转换。采取直译加注其背景知识和解释原文含义，避免损失其民族色彩形象性和联想意义。意译向译文读者忠实地转达原文信息，有时要作适当的文化转换。如：“玉兔”为什么英译成“MoonRabbit”而不译成“JadeRabbit”？让人误认为是玉做成的兔子。
旅游景点的翻译
旅游景点的翻译在旅游文化的介绍中起着非常重要的作用。要求译者对景点的历史文化背景进行充分的学习，有条件的最好作实事求是的实地考察。想办法拉近外国游客与中国文化的距离，使他们产生亲近感，激发他们的游兴。中国悠久历史中有许多著名事件，英雄人物，典故传奇等，旅游资料中经常提到的许多风景名胜往往与他们有关。不增加说明，一般外国游客就无法理解。有时候在翻译旅游资料中删减是十分必要的。因为大多数外国游客阅读这些资料都是为了了解中国的风土人情，增加一些旅游兴趣。
值得一提的就是汉语中一词多义的现象，在翻译选词时更应该慎重。比如说“楼”在英语中有许多个对应语，并不是可以随便调用的。浩然楼译为HaoranMansion，是因为这是一座公馆大楼式的建筑，岳阳楼译为YueyangTower，因为其形状类似塔，而天安门城楼是众所周知的类似检阅台、主席台的建筑，故译为theTianAnMenRostrum。
饮食文化的翻译
我国由于历史和地域的不同，形成众多菜系，在翻译时充分考虑它的中、西文化差异、其原料成份及烹调方法等。如将韭菜合子译成ChiveBox就会让人费解，何为“ChiveBox”？看到“盒子”就直接对应了“box”？可见译者在翻译菜单时对这种传统小吃本身还不够了解。应该如何解决这个问题呢？笔者不禁想到了“dumpling”一词，其所指不仅限于“饺子”，还可以指其它食品，如：粽子、水饺、锅贴等，虾饺可译为ShrimpDumpling，素菜锅贴可译为VegetableDump1ing。此类英译名现已广为接受，而韭菜合子的形状与饺子相似，体积较大，看似扁平，dumpling一词也可适用。综合考虑韭菜合子的制作方式，制作原料，笔者建议译为FriedLeekDumplings。
在对我国传统饮食文化的翻译时，可采用直译：烹饪方法+原料名，如：清蒸桂鱼SteamedMandarinFish、回锅肉Twice-cookedPork、炖牛肉StewedBeef。音译+意译：麻婆豆腐BeanCurdSichuanStyle、西苑饭店XiyuanHotel。意译：红烧狮子头BraisedMetBallswithBrawnSauce、棕子Pyramid-shapedDumpling。
公示语的翻译
改革开放以来，我国的国际化语言环境得到明显改善。举办奥运会、世博会都需要良好的国际化语言环境。然而，当海外旅游者来华发现“EntranceVisa”（凭票入内）、“FeePark”（收费停车场）、“TicketOfficeFor”（补票处），OffLimits（旅客止步）等非规范英译的公示语时又会作何感想呢?在北京，各街道路口都设置了路街名牌，如“长安街”。路牌上汉语“长安街”置于汉语拼音“CHANG''''ANJIE”之上组合共用。像这种路标中国人只看汉字就一目了然，而无看拼音的必要；海外旅游者不懂汉字，看了标注的汉语拼音也不会明白这“JIE”意味着什么。如能将拼音CHANG''''ANJIE的“JIE”改用“AVE”或“AVENUE”岂不更恰当。公示语的应用功能特色公示语应用于日常生活的方方面面，因此也直接影响到我们生活的方方面面。公示语应用功能的不同直接导致英译公示语的语言风格、语气的差异。
突出服务、指示功能的公示语广泛应用于旅游设施、旅游景点、旅游服务、商业设施、文化设施、卫生设施、街区名称、旅游信息咨询等方面，如：InternationalDeparture国际出发、InternetCafe网吧、DrinkingWater饮用水、ShoppingMall购物商城、Information问询服务、CarRental租车服务。突出提示、限制、强制功能的公示语广泛应用于公共交通、公共设施、紧急救援等方面，如：TurnRight向右转弯、Slow减速行驶、NoParking严禁停车。严格禁用生僻词汇，英语公示语的词汇选择非常重视公众化，严格避免使用生僻词语、古语、俚语、术语。
公示语的汉英翻译必须在汉英两种文化中对相同使用场合的具有相同功能的公示语进行一对一的汉英对译。一些具有中国本土意义的公示信息经确认实有必要保留，在暂时无法找到对应译法的情况下应当参照实际功能需要选择适宜形式风格进行试译，然后在部分海外旅游者中进行检验。在确认不会产生任何误解的情况下才可广泛应用。
总之，中国要实现在2020年成为世界第一大旅游目的地国家的目标，必须重视旅游英语翻译的作用。分析其中、西语言文化差异，灵活运用各种翻译技巧，恰当翻译旅游资料，注重语言文化上的差异。旅游英语翻译得好，会唤起外国游客心中的美感和向往，有助于他们领略华夏千古文明的醇厚魅力，译得不好，则会破坏游客的兴致，影响我国旅游事业的持续发展。
参考文献：
1.张维友.英语词汇学[M].北京外语教学与研究出版社，2000
2.国家旅游局人事劳动教育司（编）.英语：全国导游人员等级考试系列教材[C].旅游教育出版社，2001
3.叶苗.旅游资料的语用翻译[J].上海翻译，2005（2）
（一）制度文化差异制度文化指人类的社会制度、宗教制度、生产制度、教育制度、劳动管理分配制度、家庭制度、亲属关系、礼仪习俗、行为方式等社会规约以及与其有关的各种理论。其中大家对家庭制度中男尊女卑的观念耳熟能详。传统的农业社会和军事战争，使男子成为社会的主力，再加上儒家思想的影响，男尊女卑观念深入人心。《周易》有云：“女正位于内，男正位于外。推崇妻受命于夫和三从四德（“三从”,是指妇女应“未嫁从父、既嫁从夫、夫死从子”“;四德”,是指“妇德、妇言、妇容、妇功”）的纲常关系。西方的家庭观念淡薄，个体本位主义浓郁，虽也存在过男女不平等的现象，但由于受到文艺复兴、启蒙运动思想的影响，比较重视人的价值，有一定的平等和自由权利。体现在翻译上，表现为受不同文化影响的人，采取的翻译策略各不相同，以“你倒也三从四德的,只是这贤惠也太过了”为例：杨译：Quiteamodelofwifelysubmissionandvirtue,aren’tyou?Onlyyoucarrythisobediencetoofar.霍译：Imustcongratulateyouonyourwifelyvirtue-thoughImustsaythatinthiscaseyouarecarryingwifelinessalittlefar.毋庸置疑，杨、霍二人翻译的各有千秋，霍把“三从四德”一词译为virtue，省译了“从”的内涵，把“贤惠”一词译为wifeliness，无形中提升了古代中国女性的地位，但翻译的也是文从字顺，用奈达的同构理论来看也是形神皆备，但从巴斯奈特的“文化翻译观”角度看，杨的翻译更能反映源语文化的特征，表达原文的真实意义，不仅能让读者了解异域风情，从差异中获得新知，还能保护源语民族的文化特色，丰富译入语的文化，特别是在当今英语文化主导全球的文化潮流的背景下，意义愈加非凡。
（二）心理文化差异心理文化指人类的思维方式、思维习惯、价值观念、审美情趣、信仰、心态等[2]。其中思维方式的差异在翻译中举足轻重。西方文明的源头古希腊文明，诞生于爱琴海域的海湾、岛屿之上，农业耕种条件差，商业贸易相对发达，但变幻莫测的大海不断的干扰着当地的商业贸易，迫使他们开始认识宇宙自然，而宇宙自然的规律又往往是抽象存在的，这就孕育了最早的历史理性主义文化，高度重视逻辑推理，相信只有遵循正确的逻辑步骤才能求得真理。而我国占据了整个亚洲东部最大的可耕种土地面积，小农经济发达，工商业、科学技术相对滞后，人们逐渐意识到丰收离不开风调雨顺，生存离不开自然的恩赐，进而从自然现象中悟出阴阳交感、万物一体、天人合一的观念，再加上佛教思想（认为静默、沉思、等待，真理会自然而然地显现）的影响，共同催生了中国人用系统、全局把握事物的整体性思维。
二、文化影响下的翻译策略
宏观翻译策略：
（一）洞察文中的文化内涵。有些文章中的文化符号比较明显，我们可以一眼辨之，有些则比较隐晦，需读者有一定的文化底蕴，不然写者有意，听着无心，其中的内涵只能埋没。例如：Life,aseverybiographyandobitIhaveeverreadconfirms,iswhathappenswhenyouaremakingotherplans.文化积累不多的人看普普通通，但如果是列侬的歌迷或有相当的背景知识，他一定能辨出，这和BeautifulBoy中的Lifeisjustwhathappenstoyouwhileyou’rebusymakingotherplans.有异曲同工之处。
（二）采用归化与异化相结合的翻译策略。归化是“采取民族中心主义的态度，使外语文本符合译入语的文化价值观，把原作者带入译入语文化”,异化法则是“对这些文化价值观的一种民族偏离主义的压力，接受外语文本的语言及文化差异，把读者带入外国情景”。归化和异化旗鼓相当，不分轩轾，我们不能顾此失彼或厚此薄彼。好的译文是归化和异化的完美结合。微观翻译策略：民族特色词的翻译
（一）直译法，用拼音直接写出单词或用英语直接翻译。例如：剧名《刘巧儿》可直接译为LiuQiaoer、风水译为（Feng-shui）、麻将译为（Mah-jong）、功夫译为（Gongfu）。
（二）异译或增词进行解释。例如：若有必要，在译松、竹、梅岁寒三杰时，可把它们的寓意进行增词解释。得陇望蜀若译为covetSichuanaftercapturingGansu意思可能不能有效传译，这时就可异译为Themoreonereceives,themoreonede-sires。
三、小结
On Culture Taboos in Translation of Trademark Words and Coping Strategies
Xu Huimin
Abstracts: With the advent of economic globalization, more and more commodities are going out of the country and have a share in world market. Trademark is a special language symbol and important component of commodity culture，representing the unique characteristics of the commodity. It is also a powerful weapon for enterprisers to participate in international competition. Good trademark translation can bring tremendous wealth to the enterprise while the adverse trademark translation can make the enterprise pay a heavy price; therefore the survival of the enterprise has an intimate relationship with trademark translation. Trademark translation should follow the principles of translation and pay attention to the cultural forbidden zone in trademark translation. Here are many ways to translate trademarks, such as pinyin, transliteration and so on, which should pay attention to the cultural taboos of different countries and nationalities in order to avoid unnecessary troubles.
1. Introduction
The emergence of trademarks as a symbol of enterprise, it is a bridge between producers and consumers in direct dialogue it is a powerful weapon for enterprises to participate in international competition. The deepening of China's opening-up and the increasing economic activity of foreign-funded enterprises in China has greatly enriched the economic life of the Chinese people and created many new economic and commercial activities for the Chinese people. A large number of domestic exports to all parts of the world, foreign goods also flooded into the domestic market. Legitimate goods have their own trademarks. Today, with economic globalization and regional economic integration, more and more Chinese enterprises in order to seek larger development space and seek higher economic effectiveness for go out of the country and tend towards the world. At the same time, our lives appear many foreign brands with the same idea and purpose. A company whether can set up its own brand in this time of rapid economic growth and gain more development space, the key depend on product quality and research and development. But once you out of the country, you will face different culture, language, customs... under the background of the international market. The trademark language is a kind of language different from the ordinary word, and the ordinary word comparison implication is more profound and the content enriches makes the people easy to remember. For example advertisement and translation of trademark will play a crucial role in the early stage. It is not an exaggeration to say that when an enterprise’s brand is in the international market, the name of the commodity translated appreciately or not. In a sense, it is directly related to the brand in the international market, in a way, is directly related to the enterprise brand in the international market.
Nowadays we can see all kinds of trademarks when we walking in the street. The trademark is has the remarkable feature of a commodity producer or business operator who use it in order to distinguish his goods from other people's goods. Therefore, in the circulation of commodities, trademark is the symbol of commodities. Some trademarks is a word, some trademarks are just a simple image design, while some signs are the combination of graphics and words. Taking trademarks advertising commodity has become an important way of enterprises to tap the potential of international market and promote the development of international trade. Trademark translation is the transformation from one language to another, and to maintain its original style and connotation. Nowadays more and more foreign goods are entering the Chinese market. Meanwhile, more and more Chinese products are selling goods all around the world. How successfully translate the English trademark into Chinese trademark has become a problem for many enterprises and the translator to consider, and if China's enterprises have intention to enter the international market, that must be consider how to have good translate for Chinese trademark the into the English trademark.
This paper starts from the taboo of trademark translation, analyzes the cultural taboos which should be paid attention to in the process of trademark translation due to different cultures of various countries. With the exchange of Chinese and foreign products, the translation of trademarks is inevitable, so the translation of trademarks plays an important role in the sale of goods outside the home. The first chapter mainly introduces the background and significance of trademark translation. The second chapter mainly introduces the method of trademark translation. The third chapter mainly introduces the different cultural taboos in different cultures, and the fourth chapter mainly puts forward some corresponding strategies for the cultural taboos in the world. The fifth chapter mainly summarizes the full content.
2. Translation Methods of Trademark
In the process of trademark translation, businessmen strive for trademark individuality, concise content, break through the rules of grammar, as far as possible with the least content text bearing the most corporate culture and commodity value, and to make consumers have the desire to buy the goods and facilitate the effect of memory.( 许金杞. 意美、音美、形美——英文商标的汉译[J], 外语与外语教学，2002, (11): 48.).
2.1Transliteration
Transliteration is based on the pronunciation of English trademarks, which are translated in the same or similar pronunciation of Chinese characters. Its advantage is that it can maintain the original pronunciation advantage of the original brand and brand name, which can reflect the exotic atmosphere of the goods. Taking transliteration of trademark name is mainly composed of a person's name, enterprise name or other proper noun. This method is used in both English trademark translation and Chinese trademark translation. A common used for transliteration English trademark, such as Sony, L 'Orea, Nike, Casio, Revlon, Ikea etc.
2.2 Synthetic Phonics
Synthetic Phonics is to cut words or make words together, create a new word to translation brand name, make the brand name novel and interesting, impressive, and have abundant association. Therefore, it can play a role in the advocacy. Such as 新意达集团“Newit” (New + Wit), 东方星钟表“Eastar”（Eeast + star）, 肤美灵化妆品“Skinice”（skin + nice）, 金霸王电池“Durable cell” (Durable + Cell), 尤妮佳“Unicharm”（union + charm）, 德生电 “Tecsun”（technology+ sun）.
2.3 Spelling
The trademark taking spelling which is more simply and intuitive, and is named directly in the form of pinyin. Such as:大宝（DABAO）、六神（LIUSHEN）、华为（HUAWEI）etc. When we use pinyin to translate the name of an English trademark, sometimes it does not have corresponding words or expressions of Chinese. Some trademarks will be presented in the form of pinyin in the translation process, but the word may have different meanings in English-speaking countries. For example, there is a trademark called “FUCK Pincers”, which probably initials of the company name. But in English, the word means “cheating, cajoling” or even sex slang. Therefore, when we translate trademarks, we should be careful of each country of cultural differences and cultural taboos. Although the use of pinyin translation of trademarks have failed cases, but the use of Pinyin translation of trademarks have a successful case. Such as “Chun Lan”（春兰空调）and “Chang Hong”（长虹空调）. But these successes are in the minority. Some trademarks that use pinyin translation can be misleading, produce negative associations and cause ambiguity. Such as the lipstick brand “芳芳”, translated by pinyin as “Fang Fang”, but in English, the word “Fang” means “along, sharp tooth of a dog; a snake’s poison-tooth”. So, for cosmetics that want to make people beautiful, the translation is too different from its original meaning, and it can't arouse consumers' desire to buy. Although pinyin translation is relatively simple compared with other translation methods, but the trademark is only a sign, which usually loses the deep meaning of the original trademark. For example, “金龙” translates to “King Long”. The pronunciation of “金” and “King” is very close, and it has a noble meaning, and this conversion is reasonable. In China, “龙” is the symbol of Chinese culture, symbolizing the meaning of justice and prosperity, but the word “Long” in English pronunciation for “Wolf” so with the meaning of “龙” have a clear difference in meaning. In these cases, the loss of the original meaning of the trademark but also to foreign consumers puzzled, do not understand what these trademarks mean, thus affecting the sales volume.
2.4 Liberal Translation
The liberal translation refers to the translation according to the purport of the original text, not the word translation. Usually in the translation of sentences or phrases used more, liberal translation is mainly used in the original language and the translation of large cultural differences in the case. Liberal translation is more able to reflect the language characteristics of the nation. The transliteration of trade mark means that the translator has to abandon the literal meaning of the original text in order to conform to the original content and the main language function, which is based on the national culture and focuses on the cultural connotation. In other words, the transliteration is a completely literal translation. Such as “Red Bull”（红牛饮料），“Microsoft”（微软），The liberal translation, also called "Functional equivalence translation", usually only chooses the content of the original text and discards its form, which is a kind of translation after digestion. For example: “雀巢咖啡”translated into Nescafe. Nescafe is the abbreviation of Nestle Coffee, why do you have this translation? Because the coffee's outsourcing bottle cap is printed with the design of Nestle, its English is Nestle, and the “咖啡” translation is coffee, so in translating, The translator according to the meaning take two words together is “Nescafe”.
3. The Culture Taboos in Translation of Trademark
Because in international trade different countries have different social, historical and cultural backgrounds, a commodity often appears to be popular in one country, but in another it is neglected. This is because the translator did not take fully the cultural and historical background of the trademark translation into account, which led to the marketing failure. Translators should have a certain understanding of different countries of national culture and cultural taboos, there will not due to the mistake of trademark translation, result in the failure of commodity marketing. ( Nida, E. “Language, Culture and Translating”, 上海: 上海外语教育出版社, 1993.).
3.1 Taboos of National Psychology
National psychology refers to the character, temperament, emotion, value orientation, religious mentality and aesthetic psychology of a nation. Although the psychological model of a nation has the same characteristics as other nationalities, but most of them are different and mutually exclusive. The national psychological differences make people have psychological conflict in the people intercourse, and form the barrier of mutual intercourse. National psychology is the inherent psychological characteristic of a nation in the process of long-term evolution. Because different ethnic groups are affected by different ecological environment, religious belief and historical political and cultural background, different ethnic groups form different national psychology. Different national psychology has created different values and consuming psychology. The psychological mode of a nation inevitably influences its shopping mentality. In the process of trademark translation, if we ignore the national psychological differences, the good products will not be bought for the unacceptable translated trademark in sales place. Such as “帆船” carpet is also the traditional export products translated into junk results in the United States market no one to buy. Originally junk in English sailing accident also have rubbish, tattered meaning. Later it was translated into “Junco” to attract the attention of foreign people. Because of the different customs and morals of each country and nation, the translator should consider the culture and customs of the place of sale. The trademark of the “太阳神口服液” wants to show the world that the oral liquid can be full of youthful vigor, not directly translated into the "the god of the sun", the translator in the translation of the Cultural transformation, translated as "Apollo", the ancient Greek sun God's meaning, representing the light and youth, with the original language.
3.2 Element of Politics, Economy and History
Politics, economy and history determine the status of a country in the world, so it is a cultural taboo is an important factor to be considered in the translation of trademarks and a sensitive factor, so it is very important to take into account the political, economic and historical taboos in translation. Such as OPIUM perfume, inventor of the trademark in 1977 had been to China, he started from the Chinese snuff bottle modeling inspiration, created the "OPIUM" brand perfume, trademark means "OPIUM", translated as OPIUM will remind the Chinese of humiliation of the opium war, the strong national pride makes the perfume was listed in China slammed by consumers, and eventually banned due to violation of China's trademark law. Bear in modern economic terms, it can be matched with market, which means "market of falling market", popularly known as "weak city, market and bear market". Such words should not be used on trademarks.
3.3 The Variation of Culture Taboos in Different Countries
3.3.1 The Variation of Animal’s Symbolic Meaning
Panda: in China, they are seen as animals and pets, but in Muslim countries, they are seen as pig. African trademark also bans the panda.
Bats: westerners believe it is a symbol of terror, death and foreboding. Even kids know it's a vampire. However, in our country, it is regarded as a symbol of happiness, as an auspicious omen.
Elephant: in India, Sri Lanka and other countries are auspicious things and solemn symbols. But in some European countries, elephants have the same meaning as idiots
Owl: in our country, the owl is regarded as an ominous sign. In addition to the Swiss, westerners believe that it is the embodiment of wisdom, courage and toughness.
Peacock: in our country and south Asia, it symbolizes auspiciousness and beauty. India also sees it as a national bird, but Europeans see the peacock as a scourge.
Dogs: dogs in the west are seen as a loyal partner, protected by law. Instead, in some parts of northern Africa, people hate dogs and taboo dogs.
Cats: in many countries, they are considered pets. Europeans think cats can bring good luck. But many people in western countries think black cats are unlucky.
The crane: our country regards it as a symbol of good luck and longevity, while the French think the crane is a stupid man's name.
Rabbit: many countries think that rabbits are cute and docile, but in Australia they are the exception. Because rabbits eat grass, they are the bane of wool production, so they don't like the “rabbi” brand.
Phoenix: in our country is a kind of the miraculous animals, on behalf of the "lucky, happiness, and elegant. Chinese people believed that a “凤凰”bicycle can bring good luck, but in western culture legend phoenix is not dead bird, there is the meaning of" renewable "and" resurrection ", so the goods no takers in the west it is not surprising. A similar example of “喜鹊”，but the English word is “magpie” is talking about boring people in the west.
3.3.2 The Variation of Number Symbolic Meaning
0: Indians believe that the number ending in 0 is positive.
1: in the eyes of westerners, “1” means perfection and initiation.
3: the Greeks and Egyptians considered the “3” to be sacred, dignified and auspicious. Some western countries see this as an unlucky number.
4: North Korea, Japan and China think this number is unlucky. In the eyes of Japanese, it is lazy and useless. The Arabs thought it was immortal, so they attached great importance to this number.
7: Some Europeans and Americans think this is a good luck, while Singaporeans have the opposite idea.
8: this is a lucky number in China, which is very similar to the word "发", which people tend to choose when choosing a number. Singaporeans, however, say the Numbers are not good.
13: the west and Singapore think this number will bring bad luck and misfortune. So there are no 13 floors in western countries.
Digital deification also shows the difference between east and west. In our country “666”, “999”, “金六福”, “三元” and “13” these digital products, in the United States can see the “7-up”, “Modle Seven” and “7-eleven”and other trademarks of goods, but “666”, “13” goods exported to the United Kingdom and the United States will become a problem, because the “six” in the west is the symbol of the devil, 13 is an unlucky number. It is difficult for us to master the culture of each country, which requires us to accumulate knowledge to avoid the cultural taboos of other countries in the translation of trademarks.
3.3.3 The Variation of Color Symbolic Meaning
In China, green symbolizes life, red symbolizes passion, white symbolizes purity, and black symbolizes solemnity. In the United States, light colors are generally liked, such as ivory, light green, light blue, yellow, pink, light yellow, and they don't like purple. In France, people have imaginative about color. In addition, the color research and application is very exquisite, like red, yellow, blue and other colors. Bright-color is regarded as the symbol of vogue, luxuriant, nobility, so bright-color is popular in France. In eastern France, boys in fashion wear blue and girls wear pink. For Belgium, chrysanthemum means death, so similar to the chrysanthemum color won't welcome. For southern Belgium, girls love pink and boy love blue, ordinary people love the elegant grey. Avoid dark green, black and green color for Nazi uniform. It is not appropriate to use blue and yellow as a commercial in Sweden. Many countries like green, especially in the desert where Arabs see green as life, and green as a symbol of life for the flag. The Japanese, however, taboo green, who think green, is unlucky. In Malaysia, green is the symbol of disease. Westerners use white to symbolize purity, and black symbolizes death. Britain regards “red” as cruel and unlucky. In western countries, westerners regard white as a symbol of purity and beauty, and the bride's wedding dress is white, which symbolizes the purity and fidelity of love.
4. Coping Strategies of Cultural Taboos in the Process of Translation
Trademarks are the unity of language and culture. Trademark translation, with the perspective of cross-cultural communication, accurately grasp, the surface culture and deep culture, which can turn the material value to the abstract spiritual value. It allowed consumers to understand the material value of goods and material language culture and spiritual culture. Goods are sold to different countries and regions, so cultural differences between different types and degrees are necessarily reflected in the language. Although the translator deals with individual words in trademark translation, the translator always faces two cultures. Facing with fierce competition, the translator must have a strong awareness of intercultural communication, and break the bondage of language form equivalence concept in order that bring out the sound and make all brand names of goods have broad market prospects.( [3] Newmark, Peter. A Textbook of Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001.).
4.1 Catering to Consumer Psychology
Culture affects all aspects of our lives. It restricts and regulates the process of feeling the world and forming ideas, thus forming some perceptual cultural determinism. These perceptual stereotypes affect people's values and consumer psychology. The translation of trademarks must take into account the cultural habits and aesthetic psychology of consumers. In international trade, it is not difficult to find that the product of the same trademark is popular in one place and suffers from a snub in another. It is important that whether trademark translation can cater to consumers' aesthetic psychology. A people said that "The translator must be a real cultural person". If the translator is not sufficiently knowledgeable about the language and cultural phenomena of the target language, it is likely to make unavoidable mistakes in language or culture. For example, the “白象” battery produced in our country is translated as “White Elephant”, originally in English, “White Elephant” meaning is “big and useless”. For example, there is a kind of electric appliance called “蝙蝠”, the Chinese will take their homophonic, “蝠-福气”. When translated into “Bat”, it will cause Westerners to resent it because they hate the animal. It is important to know how to translate the correct trademark. The import trademarks translation needs to take into account the traditional culture of China and the consumption psychology of Chinese consumers. Foreign products enter the Chinese market, if they want to set up a good product image, and be loved by Chinese consumers, they should have a translation which is consistent with Chinese consumers' cultural habits and aesthetic psychology Such as the United States drink “Coca Cola”, a translator used several of its similar homophonic Chinese characters as their trademark name in its first sale in China, the result is no one buy, because these several Chinese characters together reminiscent of the shape of the tadpole, meaning of “啃蜡蝌蚪”. Later, a called Jiang Yi translator careful study of the translation of the “Coca-Cola”, not only retained the “cola” pronunciation, but also cater to the Chinese consumer's psychology, point out its “delicious” taste, and the “happy” effect. In a sense, “cola” can be sold in the Chinese market, which is a good idea of the translation has played a great role.
4.2 The Use of Concise Language
For trademark translation, consumers are impressed by the simple and easy to understand and easy to understand. Because of the significant differences in pronunciation, word formation, historical background and cultural tradition between Chinese and English, some of the most concise and powerful trademarks in one language may appear to be protracted and difficult to remember. For example the American beer “Budweiser”, translate into“百德威斯” is difficult to remember Obviously there is no “百威” to be concise, and "百威" makes people feel refreshed and infinitely powerful. The trademark translation should make the reader feel good, remember, love and be willing to buy its goods, such as “Panten”(潘婷), “Olay” (玉兰油), the translation is elegant and pleasant to hear. Therefore, when translating trademarks, we should bear in mind the memory function of trademarks, make the translation straightforward and simple, easy to read and easy to remember, and try to avoid those lengthy and cumbersome ones, that is, no real meaning, difficult to read and hard to remember . The most important goal of trademark translation is to enable consumers to remember the products they represent through the translation of trademarks. Therefore, trademark translation must be simple, easy to remember and vivid image.
4.3 Reflecting Commodity Information
The function of a trademark is to illustrate the performance of the commodity and reflect the characteristics of the commodity. A trademark is also a concise advertisement. A commodity wants to open sale, besides the quality is good, the variety is opposite the road, the price is reasonable, very important one is the translation of the trademark. By trademark, people can have the most basic understanding of the commodity, as far as possible to the purpose of pre-sale. Therefore, the translation of the trademark should indicate the performance of the commodity from one aspect of the commodity, leaving a deep impression on the consumers. The translation must conform to the nature of the product and reflect its accurate positioning in the original text. For example: the world famous toothpaste brand Crest has the meaning of “Top, Peak point, Helmet” and so on, which makes people think of the “hard and hard surface protection”. If it can protect the teeth like a helmet, who can say no? Today, P&G products are almost everywhere in the world, and the “Safeguard” is particularly profound. The word is composed of “safe + guard”, safe means “safe, safe, reliable” and “guard” means “protection” two words together, became a “security”. This can make people think that the product is safe and does not stimulate the skin and can also play a role in skin care. The translation of the trademark should indicate the performance of the product and impress the consumers. Such as: the name “Benz” of Germany comes from the name of “KarlBenz”. In Taiwan, it was translated as “朋驰” and also translated as “本茨”. Although these translations are similar to the original name, the literal meaning does not reflect the performance of the goods, or it can be said to have no meaning. Now, "Benz" is translated as “Benz”, which is similar to the original name, which can also be thought of in the literal meaning of the translated name to the excellent performance of the car. Again such as “Nike” and “original intention”, the Greek goddess of victory, “娜姬”, “Nike” to the original feeling of propaganda object may be like a beautiful and victory, and the feeling of “Nike” to the Chinese tend to be more abrasion resistance, more in line with the consumer psychology of the Chinese . Excellent trademarks try to reflect the characteristics and advantages of commodities to cater to consumers' purchasing psychology. These logos are full of allegorical or inspiring people's rich associations to create an irresistible feeling.
The trademark language is a kind of language different from the ordinary word, and the ordinary word comparison implication is more profound and the content enriches makes the people easy to remember. Trademark language has several characteristics，First, the trademark language to have independence, only has the independent trademark to give the consumer the visual impact and the appeal, thus achieves the recognition and the approval goal. In other words, there could be no other identical trademarks. Second, the trademark language should be symbolic, trademark logo must have a high cohesion and profound implication. This requires businesses in the development of trademarks to the corporate culture, entrepreneurial spirit and the characteristics of enterprise products in the brand. Third, the trademark language should also be descriptive, refers to the trademark language generally implies the quality of goods, indicating its characteristics and performance. Four, the trademark language should also have the imagination characteristic, this can give the consumer an imaginary space, lets the consumer feel that uses this kind of product to have the unexpected effect. Five, use foreign words to do trademark language, according to their own cultural patterns, new things to be reconstructed.
论文摘要：翻译的“文化转向”被认为是翻译研究的主流。本文提出，语言、文化与翻译关系密切，翻译是一种深层的跨文化交流活动，文化翻译应基于语言转换，借助文化关联的认知语境，从语境干涉的语言层、认知层、交际层、语用层等多维层面获得最佳的关联才能使译语获得与源语高度一致的文化源语效应。
1. 引言
语言与文化关系密切。语言是文化的重要组成部分，同时语言又是文化的载体，文化深深根植于语言，相互影响、相互渗透。翻译不仅是一种语言转换的活动，而且是一种深层的跨文化交流活动。面对这样的跨文化活动，译者必须通过有效的途径，平衡两种语言文化关系，避免走向极端，对源语的文化内容或因素进行有效的传译。文化的翻译与源语折射的意图的翻译是建立于对源语和译语两种文化进行深入细致地对比研究的基础上，是充分考虑两种语言文化之后的选择。如何选择译语需要我们对双语的文化等要素进行推理，以获得合理的文化关联，以顺应为手段在动态的翻译过程中选择和优化最佳的语言表达。本文讨论运用关联原则，以获得双语文化的最佳关联认知效果，使译语获得与源语高度一致的文化源语效应。
2. 文化关联与文化翻译
2.1 文化翻译的关联与推理
翻译是一种交际行为，交际的目的也就是交际者的意图和听者的期待。（Gutt， 1991：47；赵彦春，2005：114）本文根据斯波伯和威尔逊的关联论与维绪尔伦的顺应论（Verschueren， 2004：63）建构了关联顺应理论，把翻译看作是一个语际间的明示—推理—顺应—选择的阐释活动，是大脑机制的推理过程，是一种不同语言在语言维、文化维和交际维等多维度的交际活动。关联论通过明示—推理—顺应—选择给译文提供最佳的语境效果。据关联理论的翻译观，译者应首先根据自己的认知语境对原文作者的交际意图和受体的期待进行理想化的语境假设，然后进行语码选择。在翻译载有含意的话语时，在确定译文读者的认知语境能够接受和理解原文的含意，译者应尽量采取直译将原文话语中的形象和文化特征传达出来，而将含意留给读者去推敲。例如：
（1）三月里刘熏宇君来信，说互生病了，而且是没有希望的病，医生说只好等日子了……想不到这么快互生就殁了！（朱自清《哀互生》）
译文：In March I heard from Mr. Liu Xunyu that Husheng was sick and hopelessly sick at that. The doctor said there was nothing he could do but to wait for the day to arrive...How quickly the day had arrived!
“等日子”是汉语有的委婉语，即“不久于人世”，直译为“wait for the day to arrive”在上下文的关联下应能理解其语用含义。最后一句用了“How quickly the day had arrived!”来译“殁”字，与上文相呼应，保留源语含蓄的同时表达了源语的感叹语气。
文化关联与语言使用的语境密切关联。译者必须在动态的交往中关注交往干涉的各因素去理解文化和传递文化。文化不是一成不变的稳定固体，而是处于不断嬗变和演化的动态过程之中。文化的这种属性决定了语言文化、心理文化、制度文化等不同程度的变异特性。语言变体、民族文化心理、文化价值观、审美观念和文化习俗的逐渐变异都是文化动态性的具体形态。译者敏锐地抓住原文文本语言的各种变体差异是正确理解原文语言文化的关键。在译者与原文文本的对话中，译者的跨文化意识是译者理解和捕捉语言变体和文化流变的首要前提条件，这需要发挥译者的创新能力和还原能力，从而实现译者从跨语言的理解到跨文化的解读。译者在翻译时应通过文化语境进行关联顺应才能选择正确的词义，最大限度地进行译文的语言重构。
同时，为了获得最佳语境效果，译者必须力图灵活地使用各种翻译手法，例如归化、异化、注释或增添解释性等，顺应文化语境以获得与源语高度一致的翻译效果。
（2）“我所谓爱，非瓜葛之爱，乃夫妻之爱。”（蒲松龄《聊斋志异·卷二》）
译文：What I mean by love is not the love between gourds on the same vine， but the love between husband and wife.
这里译者把“瓜葛之爱”译做“葫芦之爱”，这样的爱是什么样的爱呢？源语读者和译文读者虽付出一定的努力也难以获得最佳的语境假设与认知效果。此句可以意译为“the love between distant relatives”使读者获得最佳关联。
2.2 文化关联与文化传递
翻译的根本任务是传递不同语言的文化。文化传递与关联的认知过程可以描述为：源语文化的解码与关联——源语文化理解的解构与关联——源语与译语之间文化意义的关联与解析——文化的表达与传播。（曾文雄，2007：70）由于各个国家、民族的社会制度，自然环境，宗教信仰，民情风俗，思维方式，心理差异和语言表达习惯等方面的差异，语言隐含的文化内涵给翻译带来种种的障碍，甚至出现文化误读的可能性以及翻译中所谓的不可译性。这些文化的差异，使得源语的指称、语用和言内言外等方面几乎无法在译语找到合理的对应。虽然如此，完全将源语文化价值体系排除在外也是不可取的。对于文化成分的传递必须全面地综合考虑多层面的因素，并采取不同的对策，用译语为文化交流架起桥梁。译者必须在译语文化的背景下建构起一种相应的文化语境，取得与双语语篇合理的关联性，处理不相容的文化与文化冲突，寻求冲突的调节点。
（3）She is a fox.
译文1：她是个狐狸精。
译文2：她是只狐狸。
译文3：她是位时髦迷人的女郎。
中英文化中“狐狸”都可以与狡猾或诡计多端的人联系在一起。但当“狐狸”与女性联系时，汉语与英语具有不同的文化色彩。译者必须要有语用思维，对源语的文化进行推理，获得最佳的认知效果。若按照中国人的心理，把fox译做“狐狸精”，那无疑是错误的，因为在英语中它指的是时髦迷人的女子；第二个译文看似忠实于原文，实际上容易引起误会，没有把真正的语用意义传递出来。在跨文化翻译中存在文学典故、宗教信仰、社会生活等文化词的翻译。译者若产生词义联想错误或缺乏适宜的文化意象，就难以避免出现错误或误译。
（4）Every family is said to have at least one skeleton in the cupboard.
译文：据说家家户户多多少少都有自家丑事。
译文只是把源语的基本含义表达出来，不过失掉了原文的形象表达中所体现的修辞手段。若将其译为“据说，每户人家的壁橱里至少都藏有一具骷髅”虽把源语的意象表达出来，却未能很好表达其意义，这可能会给不熟悉西方文化背景的读者带来理解的困难。我们可以把源语译为 “常言道：壁橱里藏骷髅，家丑事家家有。”这样可以把源语的表象与意义表达出来。为此，文化的差异不是绝对的和不可逾越的。只要译者通过的认知思维去解读源语，尽可能平衡原作者和读者之间的认知差异，运用翻译技巧，突破语言和超越语言因素的制约，就可以实现跨文化翻译中的文化移植。
2.3 文化翻译的关联顺应策略
翻译策略上的选择主要取决于原作者和译者的交际意图。作为交际的翻译，对源语的理解和翻译过程中对语码的选择依据的是关联—顺应性。成功的翻译是源语的交际目的与译语的读者的期待相吻合。
（Gutt， 2004：120；赵彦春，2005：114）在形式与传达源语的意图存在差异时，我们要根据交际目的进行取舍。文化信息的传译翻译是一个文化移植的过程。由于源语读者和译语读者生活在两种不同的文化形态中，形成了不同的认知环境，同一信息由于接受者文化背景、价值观念、宗教信仰、道德规范、风俗礼仪等的不同，而会产生不同的认知。因此，关联理论要求译者具备与原文读者相同的背景知识，尽可能挖掘文化内涵，达到准确的理解，用恰当的译语来重构原文信息，从而填补原文读者认知的空白。从跨文化交流的角度，我们把翻译原则归结为文化再现。“文化再现”首先指再现源语文化特色。鲁迅说翻译必须保持着原作者的“丰姿”，必须有“异国情调”，就是所谓“洋气”。所谓“异国情调”指尽量保存原文所蕴含的译语文化特色。译者必须忠实地把源语文化再现给译语读者，不得任意抹杀和损害源语文化色彩，力求保持源语文化的完整性和一致性。
（5）其形削肩长颈，瘦不露骨，眉弯秀目，顾盼神飞，唯两齿微露，似非佳相。（沈三白《浮生六劫》）
译文：Of a slender figure， she had drooping shoulders and a rather long neck， slim but not to the point of being skinny. Her eyebrows were arched and in her eyes was a look of quick intelligence and soft refinement. The only defect was that her two front teeth were slightly inclined forward， which was not a mark of good omen.（林语堂）
中国传统的美女在西方并不显得美，“两齿微露”似不祥之兆，可能也难被西方读者所接受。但是通过字里行间的信息，读者可以取得认知关联，获得足够的认知语境，推理出文化背后的含义。在可以获得相关的认知语境的前提下，显然译者应尽可能保持源语的文化特色，保持文化的源语效应，这有利于传递异域的文化。
（6）（赵辛楣）一肚皮的酒，几乎化成酸醋……（钱钟书《围城》）
译文1 ：The wine in Hsin-mei’s stomach turned to sour vinegar in his jealousy.
译文2：The considerable amount of wine Hsin-mei had consumed earlier was burning inside and make him sick with jealousy.
由于文化的差异，英美人很难把醋与妒忌联系起来，若把“酸醋”像译文1一样直译为“sour vinegar”，则起不到保留原文形象的作用，也无法让读者明白其真正的文化语用含义，因而改成“妒火中烧”较好。可见文化翻译并不是静态的，它关联到平衡双语的文化，不能不顾译语的文化特点而一味照搬源语的结构形式，进行“形式对等”的逐字死译。
3. 结语
语言的翻译实质上为文化的翻译，文化关联的翻译视角为文化翻译研究提供了新的视野，它在注重翻译本质——语言转换的基础上，探讨翻译认知过程与意义转换所涉及的接受美学、审美心理、文化生态、社会环境、历史条件等因素。我们探索跨文化交际中的语用文化在翻译中的转译，目的是让我们清楚理解语言所具有的语言价值、文化价值、语用价值、社会价值和历史价值等。为了更好平衡双语的文化，我们强调翻译过程中的平等对话，发挥能动性，在两种不同语言的文化中取得平衡，避免文化翻译走向极端，综合分析语境、交际者智力、认知等制约和影响文化翻译等因素，通过多维的关联，寻求最佳的语境效果和认知效果，采取灵活的翻译策略，传递源语的文化。这为语用文化的翻译提供新的研究和解决的方法。
参考文献
Gutt， E. A. Translation and Relevance: Cognition and Context[M]. Oxford: Basil Blackwell， 1991: 47.
Verschueren， J. Understanding Pragmatics[M]. Beijing: FLTRP， 2000: 63.
关键词：改写 意识形态 诗学
一、翻译研究的学科发展
20 世纪70 年代以前，西方翻译理论界主要采取文艺学和语言学两种研究模式，前者视翻译为艺术，强调译作的文学价值，后者视翻译为科学，把翻译理论和语义、语法作用的分析紧密结合起来，从语言的使用技巧上论述翻译。两者都是要把原文和译文进行文本对照。70 年代以后，翻译的理论研究出现了多元化的趋势，越来越多的学者开始注重文化对翻译的影响。他们把翻译放到一个宏大的文化语境中去审视，认为翻译是译入语社会中一个独特的政治行为、文化行为、文学行为，而译本是译者在译入语社会的诸多因素作用下的结果。从文化角度对翻译进行研究有着明显的优势，研究者借用各种当代文化理论去考察、剖析翻译作为跨文化交际行为在译入语社会中的巨大影响和作用，从而展现出翻译研究的巨大空间和发展前景。其中最为著名的就是“翻译研究学派”。
1972 年，客居荷兰的美国学者holmes 发表了重要论文《翻译研究的名与实》，首次提出了“翻译研究”的概念，他认为翻译研究应当被视为一门独立学科，holmes 也成为翻译研究学派的奠基人。翻译研究在20 世纪80 和90年代得以迅猛发展。我们从维也纳大学教授、知名学者snell-hornby 的论述中能看出其发展轨迹。1987 年snell-hornby 指出翻译研究无疑是属于未来的学科，到了1995 年她在《翻译研究——综合法》修订版的前言中已经把翻译研究称为一门发展速度惊人的独立学科了。
很多学者为翻译研究后来的发展做出了贡献，lefevere 就是翻译研究学派的一位杰出代表，他的改写理论对翻译的文化研究有着深远的影响。
二、改写理论
改写这一概念是lefevere 提出的，他认为翻译、编史、选集、批评、编辑等等都是不同形式的改写，它们都从某种程度上对原文进行了改变和操控，其中翻译是最为明显、最有影响的改写，因为它在另一种文化中树立了作者或者作品的形象，让他们突破了原文化的界限。在《翻译、改写以及对文学名声的制控》的前言中，bassnette 和lefevere 指出翻译是对原文的改写，而所有的改写，不管出于什么目的，都体现了某种意识形态和诗学，也同样对文学进行操控让它在某个社会中起到特定的作用（viii）。在这本书中，lefevere 多次提到改写同意识形态和诗学的关系，翻译作为最明显的改写形式也要受到意识形态和诗学的限制。
（一）意识形态
意识形态有广泛的意义，是一个关于社会文化的概念。当我们谈论意识形态的时候，可能会涉及到政治经济情况、民族的文化导向甚至某个社会的文学体系。意识形态在翻译中起着重要作用，决定了译者将要采取的基本策略。lefevere 在他的另一本书《文学翻译：比较文学背景下的理论与实践》中，明确指出译者都想出版自己的作品，如果译作同目标文化中人们接受的行为标准，也就是这种文化中的意识形态不冲突，那译者的目的就容易达到。翻译过程中最为有影响力的意识形态限制来自于政治，尤其是在那些政治敏感的社会或者时期，在这样的情况下，译者必须做出决定选择哪些类型的文本以及翻译的策略。
（二）诗学
诗学包括两部分，一方面指文学手段、文学样式、主题、原形人物、情节和象征等一系列文学要素，另一方面指的是观念，即在社会体系中，文学起什么作用，或应起什么作用。不同文化中的诗学会相互冲突，目的语文化中处于主导地位的诗学必然会影响到译者的翻译，所以为了达到某种诗学要求，译者必须做出让步，因为一种文化中人们广泛认可的诗学可能在另一种文化中并不受欢迎，这时候就需要译者采取有效的翻译策略，比如遵循目的语文化中的叙事方式或者改变原作的结构等等。
改写理论有着很强的适用性，它不同于以往文本对照的研究方法，而更关注翻译的“成品”，为研究文学翻译提供了新的视角。
参考文献：
[1]lefevere, andré. translation, rewriting, & themanipulation of literary fame. shanghai: shanghaiforeign language education press, 2004.
关键词：文学翻译；文化语境；英汉翻译
中图分类号：H315.9 文献标志码：A 文章编号：1002-2589（2013）24-0223-02
引言
“文学翻译是创造翻译文学的手段和过程。”由于文学作品在其创作素材、背景和方式等方面具有特殊性，文学翻译在很多层面受到文化语境的影响和制约，译者必须充分把握原作及作者、目标读者群的文化语境，合理采用翻译策略，译出高质量、受欢迎的译文。
一、语境、文化语境和文学翻译
翻译是一种“带着镣铐跳舞”的活动。西方名言“Nocontext，notext”也点明了语境对翻译有着至关重要的影响力和制约作用。所有译文的产生都离不开对语境的分析和理解。
语境即语言环境，英国人类学家马林诺夫斯基最早提出将语境分为文化语境与情景语境。他认为文化语境是指“某一言语社团特定的社会规范和习俗”。随着语用学研究的发展，文化语境含义的范畴进一步扩大，邓炎昌和刘润清先生认为文化是指一个社会所具有的独特的信仰、习惯、制度、目标和技术的总模式。文学翻译“从内容上讲，是对文学作品的语言形式、艺术手法、情节内容、形象意境等的再现；从语言特征上讲，文学翻译作品的语言也应具有想象性、审美性、创造性和抒情性。”[1]
文学作品往往包含并体现着一个国家或地区的文化现象，文学翻译离不开对相关文化语境的深刻了解与认识，文化语境也从多个方面影响并制约着文学作品的翻译。
二、英语文化语境对文学翻译的影响
早期的英语国家地处西欧沿海地区，因其地理环境及气候的独特性，历来有着不同于其他西方大陆国家的生活习性和历史传统。随着历史的发展，这些因素在漫长的语言演化的过程中孕育并造就了英语国家独特的文化语境。众所周知，以英语为母语的人都有偏爱使用被动式的倾向，比如“Thedoorrefusetoopen”译成中文就是“我打不开这扇门”，前者读来客观，而后者更显主观。其实，英语中被动式的广泛使用与英语国家崇尚科学和理性的历史文化背景有着密不可分的关系。
宗教也是英美国家文化必不可少的一部分，这也频繁出现在许多英语文学创作中，甚至还形成了一些带有浓厚宗教色彩的固定用法。例如，英文中形容某人穷是说“aspoorasachurchmouse”（穷得像教堂里的耗子），而同一个意思中文却用“他穷得像叫花子”来形容。译者在碰到这类情况时需要仔细斟酌，如果按照归化译法，虽然利于读者理解和接受，但却丢失了原文的文化色彩。
除此之外，《圣经》一直被看作是西方国家文学创作的两大源头之一（另一源头《希腊神话》）。西方学者也意识到“如果在后现代的今天还想让西方经典文学被读者们接受、读懂并欣赏的话，交接和熟悉《圣经》已是当务之急”[2]。在英语文学作品中引用《圣经》典故的现象俯拾皆是，直接以圣经故事为创作原型的作品也屡见不鲜。如哈代《苔丝》中的三个主要人物：苔丝、安吉拉和阿克雷，就分别对应《旧约・创世纪》里的夏娃、亚当和蛇。由此可见，《圣经》对英语文化语境有着不容忽视的深刻影响――它既是作者创作的源泉，也是英语国家人们的血肉，是与他们的生命牢不可分的一部分。所以译者在翻译文学作品时必须对其中的经典引用做到心中有数，务必要在理解了作者引用意图和深层含义后再开始翻译工作，以使译文准确，易于读者理解和接受。
三、原作者及译者的文化语境对文学翻译的影响
“创作即叛逆”这句话无论是用在原作者还是译者身上都十分贴切。对于作者而言，进行文学创作的过程就是制造一个还未出现过的艺术品的过程。由于每个人的成长环境和经历不同，这就导致不同作者在创作过程中所使用的创作手法、选材用料等都被各自的文化语境打上了深刻的烙印。
英国著名农民诗人罗伯特？彭斯长于英国苏格兰西南部的农民家庭，他创作的诗歌大都以歌颂自然的壮美、劳动人民的淳朴以及爱情为主，诗风淳朴自然、极富乡土气息，这与他生于农村长于农村的生活背景密不可分。因此翻译文学作品之前需要对作者的背景有大致的掌握，译者只有在了解原作者创作风格的基础上才能理解其创作意图和行文方式，从而更好地理解原文，将原作的内容和形式准确、流畅地再现出来。
对译者本身而言，正如我国文学大师郭沫若曾说“翻译是一种创造性的工作，好的翻译等于创作，甚至还可能超过创作。”译者受信仰、社会传统、教育背景等文化语境因素的影响，在文学翻译的过程中往往会根据自己的喜好、翻译经验和原则有所偏好地选择原作和译文。一位喜爱外国小说的译者会很少涉及英语经典诗歌的翻译。同样译培根的《论读书》，王佐良的译文半文半白，古雅庄重，而廖运范的译文则平白如话，晓畅易懂。译者的个性化翻译就是文学翻译“创造性叛逆”的最好体现。一个好的译文不仅能表达出原作的内容，更重要的是传达出原作的神韵，有时译作甚至会取得比原作更好的反响，这都归功于译者深厚的双语和双文化功底，以及对源语言和目的语文化语境的得体把握。
此外，在英汉文学翻译的过程中会不可避免的碰到一些文化意象的翻译，这些文化意象大都是各个民族智慧与历史文化的结晶，且表现形式多样，但只要一提起，就会让具有相同文化语境的人产生心领神会的感觉，完成思想的沟通。但问题在于，同一意象在不同的文化语境中可能有着不同的，甚至截然相反的含义。用语言学家的话来说“世界各族人看到的同一客观现象。不同的民族语言却给它刷上了不同的颜色。”譬如“西风”在西方代表着温暖和雨水，为人们所青睐，诗人雪莱在《西风颂》中歌颂西风的巨大力量，表达自己对西风的敬畏和喜爱；但对中国人来说，“西风”往往意味着“严冬”和“寒冷”，其在诗作中的意象也常常偏向于冷落凄清。这种文化意象的错位反映在文学翻译的诸多方面，对这些文化意象的合理处理时刻考验着译者的双文化功底和对两种语言文化语境的良好把握。
四、目的读者群的文化语境对文学翻译的制约
“文学翻译的目的就是提供读者阅读的译本……考虑读者因素是译本成败的关键之一。”[1]所以译者在进行文学翻译之前必须考虑这部作品到底面向哪些读者群。不同年龄段、不同教育背景、不同文化背景的读者对译文有着不同的期望和需求，译者需对目标读者群的需求有一个准确的认识，并据此选择恰当的文学原作进行“因材施译”的翻译工作。而且哪怕是对同一个作品的翻译，译作也应根据不同的读者群相应地调整翻译策略和基本要求。
翻译一部文字优美、意境深远的文学原著，如果是面向文化水平较高的读者，那么译者在求“信”和“达”的同时就不得不多下工夫力求达到“雅”的标准，反之，则如当下流行的外国名著的儿童译本，译者在翻译《茶花女》、《双城记》等文学价值颇高的作品时没有按照原作的行文风格翻译，而是尽量选择浅显易懂的词句，必要的时候还对原作进行删减以防对儿童读者产生不必要的阅读障碍。
随着中外交流的加深和英语教育的普及，不少读者已经具有了阅读原版小说的能力，面对此类读者的译作就对译者提出了更高的要求。比如今年来风靡全球的奇幻小说《魔戒》，其中译本由某著名出版社推出，但译本一面世就遭到的读者的批评，原因就在于部分读者在阅读原著和译作后，发现译者在翻译过程中出现的漏译、错译、望文生义、凭空增译等问题。“有些批评之鞭辟入里让记者都惊叹普通读者对西方现代奇幻文学的熟悉程度已经远远超出了传统的文学家与文学翻译者……传统译者出现了滞后于读者的情况。”在这种情况下，翻译现当代流行文学作品的译者就很有必要审慎地处理原著文本并且谦逊地接受读者的批评意见，让译者与读者合作打造出一个更加贴近原著的译文。
五、.结语
“文学翻译是译入语文学吸收、借鉴外来文学，从而促进自身文学革新和发展的重要途径。”英汉文学翻译在促进中西文化交流、帮助我国读者了解西方风土人情等方面也起到了极大的推动作用。翻译活动离不开对语境的准确把握，在文学翻译中，文化语境的作用和影响力则显得尤为突出，译者若不能很好地理解并掌握这些文化语境，势必将对译文的质量和水平产生负面影响，使译文词不达意，令人费解，更有甚者会张冠李戴，贻笑大方。
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【关键词】龙；功能主义翻译理论；跨文化交际
中图分类号：B15文献标识码：A文章编号：1006-0278(2012)01-148-01
在一项翻译活动中，文化起着非常重要的作用。翻译时跨文化交际的重要工具，因而在对纯语言的转换过程中实现文化的顺利对接才能算是真正成功的翻译。本论文浅谈在对“龙”这个词语在汉德语的翻译过程中所存在的文化不对等现象，并利用德国的功能翻译理论对其进行分析研究。
寓言神话文化中的中国“龙”和德国“龙”到底有着什么样的差别呢？首先我们来看看中国“龙”是怎样的一个形象。中国古代的神话与传说中，龙是一种神异动物，具有九种动物合而为一之九不像之形象。目前公认龙的起源是多种动物的综合体，是原始社会形成的一种图腾崇拜的标志。传说多为其能显能隐，能细能巨，能短能长。春分登天，秋分潜渊，呼风唤雨，无所不能。这些已经是晚期发展了龙的形象。封建时代龙是帝王的象征，也用来指帝王和帝王的东西：龙种、龙颜、龙廷、龙袍、龙宫等。龙在中国传统的十二生肖中排第五，其与白虎、朱雀、玄武一起并称“四神兽”。
“龙”在中国的历史与文化中起着极其重要的作用。中国人称自己为“龙的传人”，他象征着神圣，在成语“神龙见尾不见首”，“藏龙卧虎”都有较强的体现，以及古代君王称自己为“龙中”，“龙脉”的沿袭等等；他象征着力量，例如“龙争虎斗”，“龙腾虎跃”等成语都给人一种霸气与强劲的感觉；他指代杰出人才，“人中之龙”，“卧虎藏龙”以及“群龙无首”等成语揭示了龙在比喻人的时候是带有极其强烈的褒义色彩的。
德国的“Drache”又承载了哪些历史文化意义呢？西方龙的形象主要出现在宗教范畴和神话故事中。龙在基督教中被视为恶魔的象征是源自美索不达米亚神话，在美索不达米亚神话中，龙是“海洋中恐怖的生命，具有祸害人，被神消灭的命运。”巴比伦神话中的英雄马杜克的对手提亚玛托与赫梯神话中的伊卢扬卡什，皆为其中例子。居住在美索不达米亚区域附近的犹太人也曾受其影响，并将这一种观念继承下去，龙在犹太教与基督教中渐渐成为恶魔的象征。
与“龙”在中国文化中积极正面的形象刚好相反，德语中的“龙”往往带有贬义色彩。他代表邪恶，德语单词“Hausdrache”的字面意思是家中的龙，却有悍妇的意思，相当于汉语中的“母老虎”，再如“Drachenbrut”，原义为龙蛋，却的德语语言环境下被理解为暴徒，还有“Drachensaat”的字面意思应是不带有任何语言色彩的“龙种”的意思，但在德国人听来却传达出“引起纠纷和争吵的根源”或“不和的种子”的意味。所以说在德国人或确切的说在西方人的印象中，“龙”是一种邪恶势力的代表，最终要被正义方打败与消灭的，也就是说在好与坏，光明与黑暗，黑与白的对立中“龙”是属于“坏”，“黑暗”以及“黑”的那一方的。这与中国文化中“龙”的形象有着天壤之别，中国“龙”不仅代表正义的一方，而且还额外的具有“力量”与“杰出”的意味。
在这样一个有着极大差异的文化理解下，人们在对中德“龙”的翻译转换的过程中要做何处理呢？这个时候纯语言学的传统翻译理论已经无法顺利地解决问题了，传统翻译理论追求语言学上的“对等理论”，注重的是两种语言之间的转换及翻译的信息交流功能，但忽视了翻译的本质― 不仅是纯语言方面的交流，也包括不同文化间的交流。因而在处理语言中的文化因素时传统的功能对等理论是有一定缺陷的。这就促成了20世纪70年代西方翻译研究中译语文化的转向，人们开始更多的关注译文的社会效应和交际功能。代表的流派就有德国的功能主义翻译理论，旨在把翻译研究纳入跨文化交际研究中，指出翻译涉及跨文化的一切语言符号与非语言符号的转换。
论文摘要：英汉翻译是英汉两种语言的交流，也是英汉两种文化的信息传递。要想在英汉翻译中准确地传递文化信息，翻译者必须对英汉两种语言的特点及其文化差异有深刻的了解。
语言是文化的载体，反映文化并对文化起非常重要的作用;同时，语言作为文化的一部分，又深受文化的影响。语言与文化相互影响，相互作用:理解语言必须了解文化，理解文化也必须了解语言，二者密不可分。在英汉翻译中，要准确地进行英汉互译，并准确地进行文化信息传递，翻译者应具有良好的中英语言功底和翻译技巧，尤为重要的是，还必须对英汉两种语言的特点及其文化差异有深刻的了解。
一、英汉文化伯息传递与英汉语言差异
为了提高英汉翻译水平，有必要开展英汉两种语言的对比研究。这种研究的作用，从微观上来说，有利于在进行双语转换时，判断哪些是对应信息和非对应信息，并选择适当的转换模式;从宏观上说.可以树立这样一种观念，即英汉语言之间的相同是相对的，而相异则是绝对的，以免造成翻译中文化信息传递的误差。
汉语和英语属于两个不同的语系.汉语属于汉藏语系，英语属于印欧语系。可以想象，英语和汉语的区别是非常大的。不了解两种语言的特点和区别，准确的翻译则无从谈起，自然也就无法进行英汉文化信息传递。下面就从英汉两种语言在词汇和语法两个方面的特点和区别来说说英汉翻译要注意哪些方面。
在词汇方面，英汉翻译要特别注意以下两点:
(一)在一种语言里的有些词在另一种语言里并没有对应词。如:汉语中的“饺子”、“功夫”、“气功”、“三伏”等，在英语中就没有这些概念;而英语中的‘`coffee" ，"radar"，"bingo”等，以前在中国也没有这些对应的词汇。怎样在翻译中处理这些词呢?我们可以采取音译和意译的办法。如把汉语中的“饺子”、“功夫”、“气功”等分别音译成“jiaozi" } "kungfu" ， "chigong"，把“coffee" ，"radar”音译成汉语“咖啡”、“雷达”;而汉语中的“三伏”则可意译为“the hottest days in summer"，英语中的"bingo”可意译为汉语“一种类似玩彩票的游戏’，。
(二)在两种语言里，某些词语表面L似乎指同一事物或概念，其实指的是另一回事。如英语中rest room休息室，busboy公共汽车上的售票员;汉语中“农民”尹farmer ，“爱人”并lover等。在翻译中，我们不能随意“对号人座”，而要根据其词汇的实际意思进行翻译。如:英语中的rest mom指的是大建筑中的一间房子，里面设有厕所，洗漱设备等，我们可根据语言环境翻译成“厕所”或“洗浴间”等;busboy在英语中指是餐馆中收拾碗蝶、擦桌子的杂工，我们可根据语言环境翻译成“店小二”、“餐馆服务员”等;汉语中的“农民”最好译成“peas-ant"，因为英语中的‘`farmer”指的是“农场主”，与汉语中的“农民”大有区别;汉语中的“爱人”最好译成“wife”或"husband"，因为“lover”在英语中是“情人”的意思，与汉语中“爱人”的意思大相径庭。
在语法方面.英汉翻译中要注意两种语言在语法上有以下不同:
(一)汉语里很少用被动语态，而英语则常用被动语态。如汉语中的“家庭作业已经完成”，翻译成英语则是"The homework has been finished".而不能译成:"Thehomework has finished
(二)汉语中常省略句子中的动词，而英语中动词则一般不省略(口语除外)，如汉语中的“这公园很漂亮”没有谓语动词，翻译成英语则是:"The park is very beau-tiful" ，谓语动词“is”一般不能省略。
(三)汉语中只有时间状语的区别，没有谓语动词时态的变化，而英语中时间状语不同，句中谓语动词时态也必定不同。如汉语中的“学生昨天植树”和“学生明天植树”，虽然时间状语“昨天”和“明天”不同，但谓语都是“植树”。但翻译成英语谓语就不同了，“学生昨天植树”译成“The students planted trees yesterday."，“学生明天植树，，则译为“The students will plant trees tomorrow."，谓语分别是“planted”和“will plant" 。
(四)汉语的句式结构是“叠加式”，句子结构像“糖葫芦串”，一个单词一个单词或一个句子一个句子地叠加。而英语的句式结构是“树权式”，主、谓、宾和主句是主干，定、状、补和分句等是树权，并有一定的顺序。如汉语中的“一人得道，鸡犬升天”是两个单句，翻译成英语则译为“Even the dog swaggers when its master win fa-vor" ，“一人得道”变成了从句，而“鸡犬升天”则是主句。
英汉两种语言的差异还有其它很多方面的区别，这里不再一一列举。我们在进行英汉翻译时，要符合两种语言的不同特点，英译汉则要把英语译成地道的汉语，而不是“英式汉语”;汉译英则要把汉语译成地道的英语，而不是“中式英语”(Chingliah) 。
二、英汉文化信息传递与英汉文化差异
英语和汉语是两种不同文化的语言。语言作为文化的一部分，不同语言的差异实际上来源于其语言所代表的文化差异，因而加深对英汉文化差异的了解，是在英汉翻译中准确地传递文化信息的关键。英汉两种文化的差异是多方面的，包括语言交际、生活方式、衣着打扮、举止行为、饮食习惯等。但在英汉翻译中，主要涉及的是英汉语言交际上的差异，因此本篇只围绕英汉语言交际方面进行探讨。英汉文化差异在语言交际中的表现主要应注意以下几个方面:
(一)日常谈话中的文化差异
英汉日常谈话的文化差异主要体现在打招呼、告别、称呼、祝贺和赞扬等方面。如果你是一名口译者，就要特别注意这些差异。例如，在打招呼方面，中国人都喜欢用“你吃了吗?”和“你到哪儿去?”这类的问句。如果把这两句说成“Have you eaten yet?”和“Whereare you going?”，很容易引起以英语为本族语的人的误解。因为他们会认为这是一个问句，而且是询问他们隐私的问句，这样会使他们感到不愉快，而且即使回答的话，也会与中国人所期待的大相径庭。也许回答是"It’s none of your business!”(不关你的事!)，那就会使谈话双方都处于尴尬的境地。所以，如果你了解这点文化差异的话，你最好按英语文化打招呼的习惯说成"Hello”或“Glad to see you!”就行了。再如在称呼方面，英语国家的人一般都直呼其名，再客气一点也除非在名字或姓名前加上Mr或Mis、等，如Mr Smith ， Misssmith等。但中国人都喜欢在姓名或姓前加上职务、辈份等以示尊敬，如“黄局长”、“林老师”、“李大伯”等。我们翻译的时候，就要注意这方面的差异，把“黄局长”、“林老师”、“李大伯”通通按英语习惯翻译成‘`Mr/MissHuang" ， "Mr/Miss lin" ， "Mr 1i"。再如:中国人和说英语国家的人在对祝贺和赞扬方面的反应也大不相同，前者则一般用“哪里哪里!”、“过奖了!”之类的话表示受之有愧，而后者一般用“Thank you”之类表示感谢的话表示接受赞扬、祝贺。我们在翻译的时候，这类句子不能直译，而应根据双方的文化习惯稍加调整。
(二)成语、谚语和格言方面的差异
成语、谚语和格言的英汉互译一直是英汉翻译中的一个难点.难的原因在于它们非常集中地体现了英汉文化差异。在英语和汉语中，完全对应的成语、谚语和格言是很少的，绝大部分不同。因而我们在翻译这类内容时，不能直译，我们可以把这些句子翻译成与对方语言相似意思的成语、谚语和格言。如英语中的”Live and learn"要译成”活到老学到老”，而不是直译成”生活和学”。但如果找不到对方语言中对应的成语、谚语和格言时，我们最好先按原文的语言风格直译，然后再加画龙点睛的解释语，如把汉语中的”挂羊头，卖狗肉”译成”Hang upa sheep’s head and sell dog’s meat-try to palm off sthinferior to what it purports to be"，前部分直译保持了原文风格，后部分解释语用了地道的英语说法，效果就很好了。
(三)比喻和联想的差异
所有的语言中都有比喻和联想，同样，英语和汉语中的比喻和联想也很丰富。虽有少数比喻和联想在两种语言中都有对等的表达，如’’as sly as fox"像狐狸一样狡猾)"You ass”(你这头笨驴!)。但大部分比喻和联想在英汉两种语言中是大不相同的，如:英语中的”aswise as an owl"(非常聪明)，不能直译成”像猫头鹰一样聪明”，因为在中国人的印象中，猫头鹰并不是”聪明”的象征，而是”厄运”的象征。同样”You，a lucky dog(你是幸运儿)”，也不能直译成”你是一只幸运的狗”，因为中国人一般不会把”狗”与”幸运”联系到一起，倒是常常会想到令人厌恶的东西，如”狗腿子”、”狗东西”等。这种在英汉文化中对同一种动物产生不同比喻和联想的情况是很多的，因此我们在英汉翻译要注意英汉文化在比喻和联想方面的差异，切不可死搬硬套，望文生义。
